Using isotopes to understand the evolution of water ages in disturbed mixed land-use catchments

Tracer studies have been key to unravelling catchment hydrological processes, yet most insights have been gained in environments with relatively low human impact. We investigated the spatial variability of stream isotopes and water ages to infer dominant flow paths in a ~10-km² nested catchment in a disturbed, predominantly agricultural environment in Scotland. We collected long-term (>5 years) stable isotope data of precipitation, artificial drainage, and four streams with varying soil and land use types in their catchment areas. Using a gamma model, Mean Transit Times (MTTs) were then estimated in order to understand the spatial variability of controls on water ages. Despite contrasting catchment characteristics, we found that MTTs in the streams were generally very similar and short (<1 year). MTTs of water in artificial drains were even shorter, ranging between 1 to 10 months for a typical field drain and <0.5 to 1 month for a country road drain. At the catchment scale, lack of heterogeneity in the response could be explained by the extensive artificial surface and subsurface drainage, “short-circuiting” younger water to the streams during storms. Under such conditions, additional intense disturbance associated with highway construction during the study period had no major effect on the stream isotope dynamics. Supplementary short-term (~14 months) sampling of mobile soil water in dominant soil-land use units also revealed that agricultural practices (ploughing of poorly draining soils and soil compaction due to grazing on freely draining soils) resulted in subtle MTT variations in soil water in the upper profile. Overall, the isotope dynamics and inferred MTTs suggest that the evolution of stream water ages in such a complex human-influenced environment are largely related to near-surface soil processes and the dominant soil management practices. This has direct implications for understanding and managing flood risk and contaminant transport in such environments.     

富营养深水水库底栖动物群落与浮游生物相关性分析

底栖动物和浮游生物通过食物网发生复杂的交互作用,是水库生态系统物质循环的重要组分.南湾水库和汤浦水库均为存在富营养化现象的深水水库,具有较长时间的水温分层期.本文选取这两座供水水库为对象,比较其水体营养状态、底栖动物的群落结构、现存量和多样性.通过群落状态指数(IICS)定量评估底栖动物群落状态,并采用PLS模型、Spearman秩相关以及回归图探讨浮游生物各类群密度与IICS的关系.研究结果显示,南湾水库富营养程度高于汤浦水库,寡毛类在南湾水库占据优势地位,摇蚊类在汤浦水库数量上占优.南湾水库以收集者为主,其数量占比远高于汤浦水库.深水水库通常存在较强的热分层,富营养化会加重水库底部的缺氧或厌氧状态,导致底栖动物遭受周期性的缺氧扰动,影响种类多样性和现存量,改变浮游生物类群与底栖动物群落的相关性,因此底栖动物群落与浮游生物的相关性能够提供判断水库富营养化程度的重要信号,进而为水库管理方提供更多有价值的参考信息.     

Comparison of two methods for estimating the abundance, diversity and habitat preference of fluvial macroinvertebrates in contrasting habitats

In this research we evaluate the effects of the method used for estimating the potential surface available for benthic macroinvertebrates in macrophyte and unvegetated habitats on several metrics and habitat preference of aquatic macroinvertebrates in the upper catchment of the Henares River (Guadalajara, Central Spain). Three sampling sites were selected: a well-preserved stream (site A), a stream with no wood riparian vegetation (site B), and a straightened and deforested reach (site C). Two habitats were selected in each site: unvegetated habitat (i.e., substrata without macrophytes) and macrophyte habitat (i.e., substrata covered by macrophytes). In each habitat, six macroinvertebrate samples (including all macrophytes or mineral particles) were collected using a Hess sampler. Diversity and density of major families were referred to the surface of the Hess sampler (=Hess surface method) and to the actual surface of either mineral particles or macrophytes (=actual surface method). In general, for the actual surface method, biomass, richness, dominance, and diversity metrics were higher in the mineral habitat than in the macrophyte habitat. This trend was different for the Hess surface method. In general, densities turned out to be higher in the unvegetated habitat than in the macrophyte habitat when using the actual surface method, but the reverse occurred when using the Hess surface method. This fact is relevant for river biomonitoring, especially when reaches with different dominant substrates (macrophytes vs mineral) are compared using just one of the methods. It is concluded that the macrobenthic metrics and density values are influenced by the method used to estimate the potential available surface for aquatic macroinvertebrates.     

Conversion relationships between environmental quality criteria of water/air and soil

The conversion study on the environmental quality criteria between water/air and soil is the need to carry out research on soil-environmental quality standards in an all-round way, and also the demand for solving emerging problems in this field using the system dynamic and the overall view. Carrying out this study is of practical significance and theoretical values in the face of formulation and revision of soil-environmental quality standards in China. Firstly, the theoretical basis and relative models of soil-water and soil-air systems were expounded, respectively. And on this basis, a preliminary conceptual model about the conversion was constructed. After that, the current worldwide environmental quality criteria/standards for soil, water and air media were introduced based on their types, concerned pollutants and hierarchical classification, and their variation were also analyzed briefly. Particularlly, the key points for the conversion of environmental quality criteria between soil and water and/or between soil and air were discussed, respectively, while combined with the relative researching results. Finally, this conversion study was commented and prospected.     

Spatial aggregation of time‐variant stream water ages in urbanizing catchments

We calibrated an integrated flow–tracer model to simulate spatially distributed isotope time series in stream water in a 7.9‐km² catchment with an urban area of 13%. The model used flux tracking to estimate the time‐varying age of stream water at the outlet and both urbanized (1.7 km²) and non‐urban (4.5 km²) sub‐catchments over a 2.5‐year period. This included extended wet and dry spells where precipitation equated to >10‐year return periods. Modelling indicated that stream water draining the most urbanized tributary was youngest with a mean transit time (MTT) of 171 days compared with 456 days in the non‐urban tributary. For the larger catchment, the MTT was 280 days. Here, the response of urban contributing areas dominated smaller and more moderate runoff events, but rural contributions dominated during the wettest periods, giving a bi‐modal distribution of water ages. Whilst the approach needs refining for sub‐daily time steps, it provides a basis for projecting the effects of urbanization on stream water transit times and their spatial aggregation. This offers a novel approach for understanding the cumulative impacts of urbanization on stream water quantity and quality, which can contribute to more sustainable management. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Riparian land use and stream habitat regulate water quality

Riparian land use is a key driver of stream ecosystem processes but its effects on water quality are still a matter of debate when proposing measures to improve freshwater quality. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of riparian land use on stream habitat and water chemistry, and to assess in what extent stream habitat also affects water quality. To that end, we selected eight reaches in the Ave River basin (northwestern Portugal) and compared longitudinal variations in water chemistry and stream habitat between reaches with different land use (urban, agricultural and natural), and between reaches with natural riparian areas and different habitats. Stream habitat was assessed using the Fluvial Functional Index, the HABSCORE, and the Riparian Forest Quality Index. Longitudinal variations in water chemistry were determined measuring differences in concentrations of ammonium, nitrate, phosphate and oxygen, and conductivity, pH and temperature between the downstream and the upstream ends of each reach. Nitrate concentration tended to decrease along reaches with more natural riparian areas and to increase along reaches with more urban and agricultural land uses. Longitudinal variations in water chemistry also differed between reaches with natural riparian areas, suggesting that water quality also depends on stream habitat. Moreover, longitudinal variation in water chemistry was proven a simple, useful and low-cost approach to assess the influence of land cover and stream habitat on water quality. Overall results demonstrated that both riparian land use and stream habitat influence water quality and that riparian forests are essential to reduce nutrient export to downstream ecosystems.     

Spatial variability in specific discharge and streamwater chemistry during low flows: Results from snapshot sampling campaigns in eleven Swiss catchments

Catchments consist of distinct landforms that affect the storage and release of subsurface water. Certain landforms may be the main contributors to streamflow during extended dry periods, and these may vary for different catchments in a given region. We present a unique dataset from snapshot field campaigns during low‐flow conditions in 11 catchments across Switzerland to illustrate this. The catchments differed in size (10 to 110 km²), varied from predominantly agricultural lowlands to Alpine areas, and covered a range of physical characteristics. During each snapshot campaign, we jointly measured streamflow and collected water samples for the analysis of major ions and stable water isotopes. For every sampling location (basin), we determined several landscape characteristics from national geo‐datasets, including drainage area, elevation, slope, flowpath length, dominant land use, and geological and geomorphological characteristics, such as the lithology and fraction of quaternary deposits. The results demonstrate very large spatial variability in specific low‐flow discharge and water chemistry: Neighboring sampling locations could differ significantly in their specific discharge, isotopic composition, and ion concentrations, indicating that different sources contribute to streamflow during extended dry periods. However, none of the landscape characteristics that we analysed could explain the spatial variability in specific discharge or streamwater chemistry in multiple catchments. This suggests that local features determine the spatial differences in discharge and water chemistry during low‐flow conditions and that this variability cannot be assessed a priori from available geodata and statistical relations to landscape characteristics. The results furthermore suggest that measurements at the catchment outlet during low‐flow conditions do not reflect the heterogeneity of the different source areas in the catchment that contribute to streamflow.     

辽宁省大伙房水库及入库河流水质空间特征与河库水质关系

入库河流与水库存在空间上的连续性,河流污染物输入是水库水质恶化的主要原因,对大伙房水库及其入库支流61个采样点的水质状况进行调查,并运用聚类分析和主成分分析对大伙房水库及入库支流的水质空间特性和主要污染物进行分析.聚类分析显示,按照水质相似性将大伙房水库及入库支流水质可分为上游区、下游区和库区3个典型空间区域.分别对3个区域进行主成分分析,结果显示:入库支流上游区和下游区水质主要影响因素为氨氮、总氮和化学需氧量,库区影响水质的主要因素为温度、p H值、浊度、溶解氧、电导率、氨氮和总氮.对上游、下游和库区水质均有显著影响的因子为氨氮和总氮,上游区、下游区和库区氨氮浓度均值分别为0.06、0.10和0.19 mg/L,总氮浓度均值分别为0.13、0.16和0.26 mg/L.入库河流下游区对水库水质影响较大,受社河和浑河污染物输入的影响,大伙房水库水质在空间上呈现社河入库区水质优于浑河入库区水质.并且库区氨氮和总氮浓度均与距岸边距离呈负相关,溶解氧和p H值均与距入库口距离呈负相关,表明入库河流污染物输入和环库区面源污染均对大伙房水库水质产生一定影响.     

Climate–water quality relationships in Texas reservoirs

Water temperature, dissolved oxygen, and concentrations of salts in surface water bodies can be affected by the natural environment and local human activities such as surface and ground water withdrawals, land use and energy extraction, and variability and long‐term trends in atmospheric conditions including temperature and precipitation. Here, we quantify the relationship between 121 indicators of mean and extreme temperature and precipitation and 24 water quality parameters in 57 Texas reservoirs using observational data records covering the period 1960 to 2010. Over time scales ranging from 1 week to 2 years, we find that water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, specific conductance, chloride, sulfate, and phosphorus all show consistent correlations with atmospheric predictors, including high and low temperature extremes, dry days, heavy precipitation events, and mean temperature and precipitation. Based on these relationships combined with regional climate projections, we expect climate change to increase water temperatures, decrease dissolved oxygen levels, decrease pH, increase specific conductance, and increase levels of sulfate and chloride in Texas reservoirs. Over decadal time scales, this may affect aquatic ecosystems in the reservoirs, including altering the risk of conditions conducive to algae occurrence, as well as affecting the quality of water available for human consumption and recreation. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Spatial and temporal characterizations of water quality in Kuwait Bay

The spatial and temporal patterns of water quality in Kuwait Bay have been investigated using data from six stations between 2009 and 2011. The results showed that most of water quality parameters such as phosphorus (PO₄), nitrate (NO₃), dissolved oxygen (DO), and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) fluctuated over time and space. Based on Water Quality Index (WQI) data, six stations were significantly clustered into two main classes using cluster analysis, one group located in western side of the Bay, and other in eastern side. Three principal components are responsible for water quality variations in the Bay. The first component included DO and pH. The second included PO₄, TSS and NO₃, and the last component contained seawater temperature and turbidity. The spatial and temporal patterns of water quality in Kuwait Bay are mainly controlled by seasonal variations and discharges from point sources of pollution along Kuwait Bay’s coast as well as from Shatt Al-Arab River.     

Stormflow generation in two headwater catchments in eastern Amazonia,Brazil

Throughout the tropics, and the Amazon region in particular, only a few experimental studies have identified the main hydrological pathways and response to storm events. This study identifies the hydrological response patterns and quantifies the main runoff generating processes for two headwater catchments in eastern Amazonia, an area of low relief. Over an 18 month study period, 245 and 55 rainfall–runoff events at the respective headwater catchments were analysed. The rainfall‐runoff regression lines for both catchments revealed a remarkably strong linear correlation between event rain total and runoff volume. The area contributing to stormflow was proven to be constant in extent at approximately 0·6% of the catchment and to coincide with the exact extent of the riparian wetland zone. The soils of the surrounding hillslopes were found to be highly permeable oxisols. Indications of secondary permeability due to the deep root system of the secondary vegetation were also found. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Spatial and temporal patterns of the water quality in the Danjiangkou Reservoir,China

Abstract

The three-route South-to-North Water Diversion Project (SNWDP), transferring water from the water-rich Yangtze River and its tributaries to the much drier area of North China for irrigation, industrial and domestic use, has been implemented in China since 2002. Thus, water quality in the Danjiangkou Reservoir, the water source area of the SNWDP's Middle Route, is of great concern. We investigate its water quality from 2004 to 2006 by monitoring some important physical (T, turbidity and SPM) and chemical (DO, pH, alkalinity, TDS, SpCond, ORP, COD_Mn and BOD) parameters and nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) contents. Consequently, their spatial and temporal patterns in the reservoir were examined. The results indicate that the water of the reservoir is of a Ca and HCO₃ type, and the major pollutants are nitrogen and COD_Mn. Comparisons among the sampling sites show that water quality increases downstream, implying the self-purification capacity of the reservoir. The reservoir in general has better water quality in the dry season than in the wet season. Integrated basin management would be critical of the water quality in the Danjingkou Reservoir for the interbasin water transfer project.     

Water and salt balance modelling to predict the effects of land-use changes in forested catchments. 1. Small catchment water balance model

A long-term water balance model has been developed to predict the hydrological effects of land-use change (especially forest clearing) in small experimental catchments in the south-west of Western Australia. This small catchment model has been used as the building block for the development of a large catchment-scale model, and has also formed the basis for a coupled water and salt balance model, developed to predict the changes in stream salinity resulting from land-use and climate change. The application of the coupled salt and water balance model to predict stream salinities in two small experimental catchments, and the application of the large catchment-scale model to predict changes in water yield in a medium-sized catchment that is being mined for bauxite, are presented in Parts 2 and 3, respectively, of this series of papers. The small catchment model has been designed as a simple, robust, conceptually based model of the basic daily water balance fluxes in forested catchments. The responses of the catchment to rainfall and pan evaporation are conceptualized in terms of three interdependent subsurface stores A, B and F. Store A depicts a near-stream perched aquifer system; B represents a deeper, permanent groundwater system; and F is an intermediate, unsaturated infiltration store. The responses of these stores are characterized by a set of constitutive relations which involves a number of conceptual parameters. These parameters are estimated by calibration by comparing observed and predicted runoff. The model has performed very well in simulations carried out on Salmon and Wights, two small experimental catchments in the Collie River basin in south-west Western Australia. The results from the application of the model to these small catchments are presented in this paper.     

Stream water chemistry and quality along an upland–lowland rural land-use continuum, south west England

This study examined stream water quality across a range of catchments which are representative of the key environments and land uses of rural south-west England. These catchments included: (a) an acidic upland headwater catchment, rising on the moorlands of Dartmoor, with low-intensity sheep rearing; (b) a headwater catchment rising on the weathered granite lower slopes of Dartmoor, with cattle farming; (c) a lowland headwater clay catchment with sub-surface drainage and high intensity livestock farming, fodder crop cultivation, and hard-standing/slurry storage; and (d) the main River Taw, a lowland river system receiving drainage from a range of tributaries, exemplified by the above catchment types. Variations in water chemistry and quality were observed along an upland–lowland transition, from headwater streams to the main river channel. Within the livestock-dominated headwater streams, total phosphorus (TP) was dominated by particulate phosphorus (PP). These PP concentrations appeared to be mainly linked to two sets of processes: (1) in-stream sediment precipitation with sorption/co-precipitation of phosphate and/or localised in-channel mobilisation of sediment (by cattle or channel-clearing operations) under low flow conditions, and (2) sediment erosion and transportation associated with near-surface runoff during storm events. Under baseflow conditions, in-stream and/or riparian processes played a significant role in controlling general nutrient chemistry, particularly in the headwater streams which were heavily impacted by livestock.     

Travel times for snowmelt-dominated headwater catchments: Influences of wetlands and forest harvesting,and linkages to stream water quality

The time it takes water to travel through a catchment, from when it enters as rain and snow to when it leaves as streamflow, may influence stream water quality and catchment sensitivity to environmental change. Most studies that estimate travel times do so for only a few, often rain-dominated, catchments in a region and use relatively short data records (<10 years). A better understanding of how catchment travel times vary across a landscape may help diagnose inter-catchment differences in water quality and response to environmental change. We used comprehensive and long-term observations from the Turkey Lakes Watershed Study in central Ontario to estimate water travel times for 12 snowmelt-dominated headwater catchments, three of which were impacted by forest harvesting. Chloride, a commonly used water tracer, was measured in streams, rain, snowfall and as dry atmospheric deposition over a 31 year period. These data were used with a lumped convolution integral approach to estimate mean water travel times. We explored relationships between travel times and catchment characteristics such as catchment area, slope angle, flowpath length, runoff ratio and wetland coverage, as well as the impact of harvesting. Travel time estimates were then used to compare differences in stream water quality between catchments. Our results show that mean travel times can be variable for small geographic areas and are related to catchment characteristics, in particular flowpath length and wetland cover. In addition, forest harvesting appeared to decrease mean travel times. Estimated mean travel times had complex relationships with water quality patterns. Results suggest that biogeochemical processes, particularly those present in wetlands, may have a greater influence on water quality than catchment travel times.     

Statistical assessment of relationships between water flow in a river and water turbidity in water intakes

Probability distributions of water flow and its turbidity after passing through water intake structures are considered. Heavy tails with a power distribution are shown to exist. These distributions are used to find the dependence between water turbidity at the inlet to the water station and water flow in the river. Quantiles of these distributions are estimated to characterize the levels of water flow and turbidity with a given exceedance probability.Translated from Vodnye Resursy, Vol. 32, No. 2, 2005, pp. 196–204.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Dolgonosov, Korchagin.     

Comparative modelling of two catchments in Taiwan and England

A comparative modelling of two catchments of similar sizes in Taiwan and England is described. In the study, despite its success in many Taiwanese catchments, including the Yan‐Shui Creek catchment in this study, the distributed model GBDM was initially found unsuitable when applied to the Brue catchment in South West England. However, the simulations are much better after revising the infiltration capacity. Further exploration reveals several interesting findings. (1) The infiltration computation based on soil characteristics and classifications is unreliable in the model. Other factors, such as climate, farming practice and vegetation cover, could have a much more significant impact. (2) The application of the GBDM far away from its ‘home country’ unveils a possible weakness of such a model for being ‘underfitting’. The fact that an ‘adjustment factor’ added in the model could improve both its calibration and validation may indicate that there is a room to improve the GBDM structure for catchments outside Taiwan. (3) The study illustrates the difficulty in creating a universal distributed model that could suit all possible hydrological environments, under the constraint of model parameter parsimony to minimize the ‘equifinality’ problem. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.