Metamorphism of sedimentary rocks recognised by 19th century French naturalists: A case study from the Chavanon sequence marbles,Massif Central,France

The Chavanon metamorphic sequence in the Variscan French Massif Central contains marble lenses that have been exploited since at least the 18th century to produce lime. They provided an opportunity to some major pioneers among nineteenth century French geologists to understand how metamorphic rocks are formed. The intimate association between marbles and gneisses led them to propose that the initial pile of rocks was deposited as a single unit under water. They thoroughly described the attitude, folding and mineralogy of the marbles, making their works of great historical value. Originally written in French, their translation into English and the reproduction of original figures from the works they published will be very useful to the international community of geologists interested in the history of their science.     

Abraham Gottlob Werner: History and folk‐history

The Neptunist‐Vulcanist controversy has distorted the reputations of both James Hutton and Abraham Gottlob Werner. Among English‐speaking geologists, Hutton is often presented as the Father of Modern Geology, whereas Werner's views are seen as ‘palpably absurd’. Both men made major contributions to geology, but they were men of their age, the second half of the eighteenth century, and remote in their general ideas from those current since Lyell's day in the mid‐nineteenth. Werner was greatly admired by some of his ablest contemporaries, and their admiration becomes inexplicable if we regard his views as ‘palpably absurd’. Historical research in the last few years, reviewed here, is able to show how Werner's views arose and why they seemed persuasive at the time. Some examples of Neptunist observations in Australia in the 1820's are given to show the application and later modification of the theory.     

Growing up a geologist—John Phillips and William Smith

William Smith's 1815 Map of the Geology of England and Wales was a ground‐breaking achievement that changed the understanding of geology forever. However, perhaps Smith's greatest contribution to science lay in nurturing the talent of his orphaned nephew, John Phillips, who grew up to become one of the most versatile and distinguished geologists and polymaths of the nineteenth century.     

Letters from volcanoes

Geology Today often features letters from geologists working on active volcanoes. Some of the most famous letters from a volcano were written by Sir William Hamilton from Vesuvius in Italy, during the 18th century and earned him the title of 'the first volcanologist'.     

高速远程滑坡-碎屑流运动机理研究发展现状与展望

高速远程滑坡-碎屑流具有极高的运动速度和超远距离的位移,往往能够引发灾难性事故,造成严重的生命财产损失,因此,它的运动机理,即高速远程效应机理一直是国内外学者研究的热点。目前国外主要存在四种观点:空气润滑模型、颗粒流模型、能量传递模型和底部超孔隙水压力模型。但是,由于高速远程滑坡-碎屑流自身的复杂性,到目前为止,研究还没有取得公认的成果。中国是高速远程滑坡-碎屑流的频发区,因其研究才刚刚起步,研究成果还处于定性阶段。本文在查阅大量文献的基础上,从理论和技术两方面分别阐述了国内外高速远程滑坡-碎屑流运动机理研究的发展现状,对目前纵多的理论和模型进行了归纳与总结,点评了目前研究的难点,并在此基础上提出了今后的研究重点。本文是国内外首次对该领域的研究进行系统的归纳和总结,对今后类似的研究具较高的参考价值。     

How to stir a revolution as a reluctant rebel: Rudolf Trümpy in the Alps

Rudolf Trümpy (1921–2009) was one of the great Alpine geologists of the twentieth century and an influential figure in the international geological community. He played a dominant role in the change of opinion concerning the Alpine evolution by showing that normal faulting dominated the early development of the Alpine realm from the Triassic to the early Cretaceous. This provided a convenient model for later plate-tectonic interpretations of collisional mountain belts. His further recognition of strike-slip faulting during all stages of the Alpine evolution presaged the realisation that the Alps were not built by a simple open-and-shut mechanism. Trümpy was educated during an intellectual lull, a time when simplistic models of the earth behaviour inherited from the middle of the nineteenth century became prevalent under the influence of a close-minded, positivist approach to geological problems. This period, which we term the Dark Intermezzo, lasted from about 1925 to 1965. The grand syntheses of Suess and Argand which preceded this period were viewed from this narrow angle and consequently misunderstood. It was thought that earth history was punctuated by global orogenic events of short duration taking place within and among continents and oceans whose relative positions had remained fixed since the origin of the planet. These views, summarised under the term ‘fixism’, were developed when the ocean floors were almost totally unknown. When data began coming in from the post World War II oceanographic surveys, the world geological community was slow to receive and digest them. Trümpy followed these developments closely, realising that his work was important in placing the geology of the mountain belts within the emerging, new theoretical framework. He adopted the position of a critic and emphasised where detailed knowledge of the Alps, unquestionably the best known mountain belt in the world, supported and where it contradicted the new ideas. His voice was listened to carefully and subsequent developments have shown his critique to have been prescient. It is regrettable that he did not publish some of the theoretical criticisms he communicated to his colleagues during scientific meetings and informal conversations. His hesitance in becoming involved in theoretical arguments in geology may have stemmed partly from his scientific upbringing during the Dark Intermezzo and partly because he genuinely believed that he was better off sticking to what he thought he knew for sure. He nevertheless stressed that it is important for geologists ‘to dream’. It is often said about teachers that one should do what they say, not what they do. In Trümpy’s case, it was the opposite. Both scientifically and as a human being, he was a most admirable man.     

Tampa Bay Coastal Wetlands: Nineteenth to Twentieth Century Tidal Marsh-to-Mangrove Conversion

Currently, mangroves dominate the tidal wetlands of Tampa Bay, Florida, but an examination of historic navigation charts revealed dominance of tidal marshes with a mangrove fringe in the 1870s. This study's objective was to conduct a new assessment of wetland change in Tampa Bay by digitizing nineteenth century topographic and public land surveys and comparing these to modern coastal features at four locations. We differentiate between wetland loss, wetland gain through marine transgression, and a wetland conversion from marsh to mangrove. Wetland loss was greatest at study sites to the east and north. Expansion of the intertidal zone through marine transgression, across adjacent low-lying land, was documented primarily near the mouth of the bay. Generally, the bay-wide marsh-to-mangrove ratio reversed from 86:14 to 25:75 in 125?years. Conversion of marsh to mangrove wetlands averaged 72?% at the four sites, ranging from 52?% at Old Tampa Bay to 95?% at Feather Sound. In addition to latitudinal influences, intact wetlands and areas with greater freshwater influence exhibited a lower rate of marsh-to-mangrove conversion. Two sources for nineteenth century coastal landscape were in close agreement, providing an unprecedented view of historic conditions in Tampa Bay.     

Joggins,Nova Scotia

Joggins is a famous fossil locality in Nova Scotia, Canada. Hewn by some of the world's highest tides on the Bay of Fundy, these crumbling cliffs shed light on the life and environments of the Carboniferous Coal Age, 315 million years ago. The site has been a magnet for geologists since the early nineteenth century. Charles Lyell described it as the world's best coal‐bearing section and together with his colleague, William Dawson, reported amazing fossil forests and a rich terrestrial fauna. Since that golden age, the rate of new fossil discoveries has hardly diminished and in recognition of its importance, the Joggins Fossil Cliffs was awarded UNESCO World Heritage Status in 2008. Even after many years of study, it remains a tremendous thrill for us to explore this ‘classic locality’ in far‐flung Nova Scotia. Each winter storm, rock fall, and tide brings with it the tantalizing possibility of new fossils and new scientific insights. In this article we share something of our excitement for Joggins and provide an up to date field guide for those wishing to unlock its secrets.     

Agricultural changes in Punjab in the nineteeth century: 1850–1900

The study focusses on the trends of development of land use patterns in th half of the nineteenth century in Punjab and early efforts of the administration to improve the crops raised in the province. It also points out the difficulties faced in the improvement in the agricultural practices of the area. Inter-district variations in agricultural productivity in the province has been determined during this period and the districts have been categorized into four groups on the basis of their level of agricultural development. Regression technique was used to study the causal effect of inputs on the agricultural productivity; discriminate analysis determined inter-group variability.     

Swiss and Alpine geologists between two tectonic revolutions. Part 2: From drifting continents towards plate tectonics

Following the major contributions of Wegener and Argand (Part 1), it was the work of synthesis carried out by R. Staub that represented the major contribution Alpine geology made with respect to that heritage. The research work of young scientists (Gagnebin, Juvet, Wavre, Leuba) who had been influenced by Argand was of lesser importance. Ampferer’s ground breaking contribution, coming along with illuminating graphic illustrations, was all but ignored. Although remaining fairly popular, the theory of continental drift found itself under the heavy fire of criticism from influential geologists in the USA and in Europe. In order to test the validity of the idea, C.E. Wegmann suggested linking geological field work with oceanographic research. He showed that the trajectories of drifting had to be conceived as following the small circles of the sphere. With regard to Alpine geologists of the time, they were renowned for the high quality of their geological mapping. This remained the very special activity in which they excelled, but they focused on topics that were becoming narrower and narrower, and increasingly specialised. The new avenues for research that Holmes and Hess opened up had but little impact on Alpine geologists. In fact, they apparently remained unaware of a note by Holmes written in German and published in a Swiss journal. On the eve of the Second World War, the meeting of the Geologische Vereinigung devoted to the origin of the Atlantic Ocean confirmed that continental drift was being seriously challenged, although a few papers pointed to new developments, e.g. that in Iceland extensional tectonics had been active for the last 5,000 years. Most Alpine geologists were either highly critical of the theory of plate tectonic when it arrived or expressed serious reservations towards the idea. Of the exceptions, first Laubscher and then Bernoulli showed very clearly how important the new theory could be for understanding the evolution of Alpine orogeny. Continental drift and plate tectonics were very much the product of the creative imagination of human minds. Whereas Wegener used a broad range of confirmed results, plate tectonics sprang out of the new research being carried out in the domain of oceans. Graphic illustration was one of the favourite vehicles used to put across these new perspectives. Sometimes their impact remained alive long after their author had withdrawn his backing for the idea (as was the case for Argand’s “embryonic tectonics”); sometimes, even in spite of their very high standard, they were just ignored (which was the case for Ampferer).     

Population distribution and standard of living in Iceland

The Vikings and other settlers of Iceland immigrated during the 10th century not only for political reasons but also because they were seeking more spacious lands and thus a better standard of living. They found what they were searching for, and they and their descendants for some hundreds of years did live a relatively prosperous life. Eventually in the 15th century they suffered a series of setbacks. Poor living conditions were nothing unusual for the Icelanders in late medieval Europe, but this coupled with both the cool climate and the lack of timber for housing and heating, and for boat and shipbuilding made their lot an especially hard one. The 18th century was the darkest one in Icelandic history, and those acquainted with the problems doubted that the little nation could survive. But then, beginning in the 19th century and rapidly increasing in the 20th century, the urban evolution came about and brought with it a measure of progress. As a result, most Icelanders now live in towns, with over fifty percent living in Reykjavik and its environs. The effects of rural migration is one problem that persists in spite of the fact that the average income is now similar in most areas.     

Can field data constrain rock viscosities?

In the 1960s it looked as though the ratio of wavelength to thickness of folds along shortened competent single layers might allow constraint of the viscosity ratios between the layers and their hosts when they deformed together. In the 1970s, the possibility arose that simple field measurements of boudins and mullions might also constrain rock viscosity ratios and thereby distinguish deformation facies and map rock viscosities in pressure–temperature–time space. Even more potential tools for constraining rock viscosities appeared in the 1980s but since then progress appears to have stagnated in a welter of problems.An attempt is made to refocus attention on direct retrospective measurements of rock rheologies during natural deformations by reviewing the potential field tools for constraining rock viscosities, discussing some of their problems, and by a crude application of the most developed approach. Further advances are likely to come from iteration between modellers and structural geologists working in a variety of tectonic settings. As well as constraining the pressure–temperature–time paths of our rocks, we should also be attempting to measure their viscosities.     

Karl von Raumer: a pioneer of German military geology

Napoleon Bonaparte was in 1798 the first general to involve geologists as such in a military campaign. But geologists were attached to his army as civilians, without military rank or command function. In contrast, the Prussian general (later Field Marshal) Gebhard von Blücher has generally been credited with first making use of a geologist in military uniform: Professor Karl von Raumer, during the 1813–14 war of German liberation from French Napoleonic domination. Authors have claimed that Blücher consulted Raumer for information on the terrain of Silesia before triumphing over the French at the Battle of the Katzbach in 1813, and that Raumer was therefore the first geologist to help plan a military operation. But is this true? Did Raumer in effect initiate German military use of geology – pioneering the widespread use of geologists, many of them professors, in the 20th century German army?     

“One needs to be very brave to stand all that”: Cycling,rational dress and the struggle for citizenship in late nineteenth century Britain

The article discusses changing ideas around citizenship through an analysis of first person accounts of women cyclists in Rational Dress in late nineteenth century Britain. A close reading of personal correspondence provides a sense of how it felt to cycle while dressed in new mobility costumes, such as bloomers, in urban and suburban English landscapes. Such attired and independently mobile women affirmed or unsettled onlooker’s understandings of how middle and upper class women should look and act in public. Some viewers subjected them to verbal and often physical assault. Others, in awe of their socio-technical sophistication were more supportive. Taking a ’bloomer point of view’ provides a unique socio-material way of gaining a deeper understanding of what enabled and also inhibited women’s claims to citizenship and freedom of movement, especially at a time when women were not citizens in a legal sense. I argue that through these richly described accounts we gain insightful glimpses into how individual sensory, embodied and political experiences collectively illuminate the becoming of ’citizen’ as it relates to mobility, gender and landscape.     

新疆地质矿产事业光辉灿烂的五十年

首先首要回顾了新疆百余年来的地质工作历史,在此基础上,主要从基础地质、矿产地质和地矿科研三个方面论述了新中国成立后,五十年来新疆地质矿产事业取得的辉煌成就和巨大贡献,讴歌了新疆地质矿产工作者艰苦创业、开拓进取、无私奉献的精神。最后展望了２１世纪新疆地质矿产事业的灿烂前景。     

The fat of the land: a geography of oil and fat consumption

Lipids – or oils and fats – have attracted much attention in nutrition and medical research because of their adverse effects upon health, but the geography of lipids has received very little notice. International differences in consumption can be calculated from the Food and Agriculture Organization's Food Balance Sheets. Consumption was very low in the early nineteenth century, but increased as incomes rose and more animal foods were consumed, whilst technical advances allowed the use of a wide range of vegetable oils per capita. Consumption of total lipids is greatest in North America, Europe, Australasia and temperate South America, lowest in Asia, reflecting differences in income, although other factors are important. The sources of animal and plant lipids are discussed and their changing relative importance over time is traced. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Lost and found

Consulting type specimens is a necessary element of taxonomic research in palaeontology. Every taxonomist from time to time has to examine the types to make sure that the identifications are correct. This can be a difficult proposition when the fossils in question were collected in the early nineteenth century. But just because a historical fossil collection is said to be 'lost', doesn't mean it cannot be found.     

The European system of capital cities

Capital cities reflect the nature and organization of the states they control. Their functional role is higher in centralized systems, societies where the state is the source of all legitimacy, and countries using Continental Law. It is lower in federal systems, pillarized societies and countries, which are ruled according to a Common Law. The symbolic status of capital cities is higher when the state is the source of all legitimacy, lower in consociationalist societies. Theses processes were responsible for the development of two types of political capital cities and one type of economic and cultural capital cities during the nineteenth century. A partial standardization of the functions and statuses of capital cities occurred later. The European Union is neither a state nor a super-state since its main responsibilities are still in the economic field, it lacks a huge administrative bureaucracy and does not have definitive territorial limits. The European Union has officially three capital cities, Strasbourg, Luxembourg and Brussels. The really important one is Brussels. Its functions are nevertheless quite different from those of national capital cities during the first half of the twentieth century. European capital cities are thriving because most of them managed to become economic metropolises. The result is that the European Union has a complex and rapidly evolving system of capital cities.     

Problem of old marine shorelines in Russian geology during second half of nineteenth century

In Russia, as elsewhere, the study of paleogeography emerged near the end of the nineteenth century and was based on facies analysis and paleoecology. Determining former shorelines is the most important question in paleogeography. The actualist method, by which the results obtained from an examination of present-day facies could be extrapolated to the past, provided a reliable premise for the determination of ancient shorelines. Recent changes in coasts were observed and were attributed to rise and fall of ocean level, to uplifts and subsidences of the land, or to sediment compaction. Since much of the continental surface has still not been adequately studied, however, the picture of land-sea distribution throughout geological history was fragmentary. It was discovered that conglomerates formed the bulk of coastal sediments in mountainous littorals; sandy and argillaceous deposits were widespread in the shore zone of low-lying land. Golovkinskiy was of the opinion that coastal sedimentation was influenced by climatic factors. Influences of lagoons, barrier beaches, and rivers on shorelines were appreciated. In discovering the position of Russian Devonian and Carboniferous shorelines, Inostrantsev made use of well-known fossil forms. Kovalevskiy attempted to reconstruct the distribution of land and sea over Europe in the Jurassic and Cretaceous. Nikitin pointed out that many paleogeographic maps show only the area in which marine sediments are found today and the limits differ considerably from the former extent of the seas. In 1880, Karpinskiy made the first attempt to depict the configuration of land and sea during the Carboniferous, Devonian, Permian and Triassic. The works of many other geologists are also reviewed.—J. D. Haun     

地质资料汇交整理过程中的若干问题探讨

各类地质项目在完成工作后都要把逐渐积累起来的纷繁庞杂的各种原始资料进行整理归类,形成的成果经评审后会同原始资料然后一并汇交。由于过去一些从事项目工作人员平时工作中缺乏对资料工作的重视,未能对相关资料进行必要的积累和规范化处理,可能给最后的资料整理和汇交带来很多麻烦。本文结合近期笔者参加本院对内蒙古自治区相关项目资料汇交时发现的相关问题,与相关人员互相交流和探讨。