Experimental and numerical study of the validity of Hele–Shaw cell as analogue model for variable-density flow in homogeneous porous media

Several laboratory experiments were conducted to identify the validity domain under which a Hele–Shaw cell may serve as a suitable analogue for variable-density flow in homogeneous porous media. These experiments are concerned with the injection into a Hele–Shaw cell of a salt solute at different concentrations and flow rates. The experimental data analysis highlighted two types of mixing zone shape: with and without ‘fingers’. A semi-empirical criterion based on the ratio between gravitational and injected velocities was used to forecast the change from one shape to another. The experimental data were then analysed using numerical solutions of the classical Hele–Shaw equations by taking into account an anisotropic dispersion tensor whose components depend on fluid density gradients. The good agreement between experimental and numerical results clearly shows that the validity of the concentration-dependent dispersion tensor strongly depends on the local Péclet number variation. For Péclet numbers lower 50, the Hele–Shaw cell can be considered as an analogous model of a homogeneous and isotropic 2D porous medium. It can be successfully used to study, at the laboratory scale, the gravitational instability effects induced by flow and transport phenomena into a porous medium.     

Analytical models of contaminant transport in coastal aquifers

The Henry formulation, which couples subsurface flow and salt transport via a variable-density flow formulation, can be used to evaluate the extent of sea water intrusion into coastal aquifers. The coupling gives rise to nontrivial flow patterns that are very different from those observed in inland aquifers. We investigate the influence of these flow patterns on the transport of conservative contaminants in a coastal aquifer. The flow is characterized by two dimensionless parameters: the Péclet number, which compares the relative effects of advective and dispersive transport mechanisms, and a coupling parameter, which describes the importance of the salt water boundary on the flow. We focus our attention on two regimes – low and intermediate Péclet number flows. Two transport scenarios are solved analytically by means of a perturbation analysis. The first, a natural attenuation scenario, describes the flushing of a contaminant from a coastal aquifer by clean fresh water, while the second, a contaminant spill scenario, considers an isolated point source.     

A meshless method to simulate solute transport in heterogeneous porous media

We derive a meshless numerical method based on smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) for the simulation of conservative solute transport in heterogeneous geological formations. We demonstrate that the new proposed scheme is stable, accurate, and conserves global mass. We evaluate the performance of the proposed method versus other popular numerical methods for the simulation of one- and two-dimensional dispersion and two-dimensional advective–dispersive solute transport in heterogeneous porous media under different Pèclet numbers. The results of those benchmarks demonstrate that the proposed scheme has important advantages over other standard methods because of its natural ability to control numerical dispersion and other numerical artifacts. More importantly, while the numerical dispersion affecting traditional numerical methods creates artificial mixing and dilution, the new scheme provides numerical solutions that are “physically correct”, greatly reducing these artifacts.     

Accuracy of numerical simulations of contaminant transport in heterogeneous aquifers: A comparative study

This work deals with a comparison of different numerical schemes for the simulation of contaminant transport in heterogeneous porous media. The numerical methods under consideration are Galerkin finite element (GFE), finite volume (FV), and mixed hybrid finite element (MHFE). Concerning the GFE we use linear and quadratic finite elements with and without upwind stabilization. Besides the classical MHFE a new and an upwind scheme are tested. We consider higher order finite volume schemes as well as two time discretization methods: backward Euler (BE) and the second order backward differentiation formula BDF (2). It is well known that numerical (or artificial) diffusion may cause large errors. Moreover, when the Péclet number is large, a numerical code without some stabilising techniques produces oscillating solutions. Upwind schemes increase the stability but show more numerical diffusion. In this paper we quantify the numerical diffusion for the different discretization schemes and its dependency on the Péclet number. We consider an academic example and a realistic simulation of solute transport in heterogeneous aquifer. In the latter case, the stochastic estimates used as reference were obtained with global random walk (GRW) simulations, free of numerical diffusion. The results presented can be used by researchers to test their numerical schemes and stabilization techniques for simulation of contaminant transport in groundwater.     

Modeling preasymptotic transport in flows with significant inertial and trapping effects – The importance of velocity correlations and a spatial Markov model

We study solute transport in a periodic channel with a sinusoidal wavy boundary when inertial flow effects are sufficiently large to be important, but do not give rise to turbulence. This configuration and setup are known to result in large recirculation zones that can act as traps for solutes; these traps can significantly affect dispersion of the solute as it moves through the domain. Previous studies have considered the effect of inertia on asymptotic dispersion in such geometries. Here we develop an effective spatial Markov model that aims to describe transport all the way from preasymptotic to asymptotic times. In particular we demonstrate that correlation effects must be included in such an effective model when Péclet numbers are larger than O(100) in order to reliably predict observed breakthrough curves and the temporal evolution of second centered moments. For smaller Péclet numbers correlation effects, while present, are weak and do not appear to play a significant role. For many systems of practical interest, if Reynolds numbers are large, it may be typical that Péclet numbers are large also given that Schmidt numbers for typical fluids and solutes can vary between 1 and 500. This suggests that when Reynolds numbers are large, any effective theories of transport should incorporate correlation as part of the upscaling procedure, which many conventional approaches currently do not do. We define a novel parameter to quantify the importance of this correlation. Next, using the theory of CTRWs we explain a to date unexplained phenomenon of why dispersion coefficients for a fixed Péclet number increase with increasing Reynolds number, but saturate above a certain value. Finally we also demonstrate that effective preasymptotic models that do not adequately account for velocity correlations will also not predict asymptotic dispersion coefficients correctly.     

Modeling non-equilibrium mass transport in biologically reactive porous media

We develop a one-equation non-equilibrium model to describe the Darcy-scale transport of a solute undergoing biodegradation in porous media. Most of the mathematical models that describe the macroscale transport in such systems have been developed intuitively on the basis of simple conceptual schemes. There are two problems with such a heuristic analysis. First, it is unclear how much information these models are able to capture; that is, it is not clear what the model's domain of validity is. Second, there is no obvious connection between the macroscale effective parameters and the microscopic processes and parameters. As an alternative, a number of upscaling techniques have been developed to derive the appropriate macroscale equations that are used to describe mass transport and reactions in multiphase media. These approaches have been adapted to the problem of biodegradation in porous media with biofilms, but most of the work has focused on systems that are restricted to small concentration gradients at the microscale. This assumption, referred to as the local mass equilibrium approximation, generally has constraints that are overly restrictive. In this article, we devise a model that does not require the assumption of local mass equilibrium to be valid. In this approach, one instead requires only that, at sufficiently long times, anomalous behaviors of the third and higher spatial moments can be neglected; this, in turn, implies that the macroscopic model is well represented by a convection–dispersion–reaction type equation. This strategy is very much in the spirit of the developments for Taylor dispersion presented by Aris (1956). On the basis of our numerical results, we carefully describe the domain of validity of the model and show that the time-asymptotic constraint may be adhered to even for systems that are not at local mass equilibrium.     

Role of basic rheological models in determination of wave attenuation over muddy seabeds

Among rheological models for estimating the rate of dissipation of non-breaking waves in muddy seabeds, those representing viscoelastic and poroelastic behaviors are used widely. In that regard, the dependence of the wave attenuation coefficient derived from basic rheological representations of mud behavior is examined on a cursory basis. For wave attenuation due to viscoelastic muds, results based on a semi-analytical model incorporating the effects of typically thin mud layers are summarized. This and an existing model for poroelastic beds are tested against selective laboratory data. Relying on these tests, it is emphasized that fluid-like mud should be modeled as a viscoelastic fluid medium, and that only non-fluid beds can be modeled as poroelastic media. Mechanisms for energy dissipation depend on bed compactness specified by the solids volume fraction, porosity or density, and on a characteristic Péclet number defined in terms of particle size, permeability and wave frequency. Due to the role of the latter parameter, for simulation of wave attenuation the chosen rheological model for a bed of given compactness must be applicable over the expected range of wave frequency.     

Comparison of theory and experiments for dispersion in homogeneous porous media

Modeling dispersion in homogeneous porous media with the convection–dispersion equation commonly requires computing effective transport coefficients. In this work, we investigate longitudinal and transverse dispersion coefficients arising from the method of volume averaging, for a variety of periodic, homogeneous porous media over a range of particle Péclet (Pe_p) numbers. Our objective is to validate the upscaled transverse dispersion coefficients and concentration profiles by comparison to experimental data reported in the literature, and to compare the upscaling approach to the more common approach of inverse modeling, which relies on fitting the dispersion coefficients to measured data. This work is unique in that the exact microscale geometry is available; thus, no simplifying assumptions regarding the geometry are required to predict the effective dispersion coefficients directly from theory. Transport of both an inert tracer and non-chemotactic bacteria is investigated for an experimental system that was designed to promote transverse dispersion. We highlight the occurrence of transverse dispersion coefficients that (1) depart from power-law behavior at relatively low Pe_p values and (2) are greater than their longitudinal counterparts for a specific range of Pe_p values. The upscaling theory provides values for the transverse dispersion coefficient that are within the 98% confidence interval of the values obtained from inverse modeling. The mean absolute error between experimental and upscaled concentration profiles was very similar to that between the experiments and inverse modeling. In all cases the mean absolute error did not exceed 12%. Overall, this work suggests that volume averaging can potentially be used as an alternative to inverse modeling for dispersion in homogeneous porous media.     

Non-equilibrium concentration profile formulas of suspended sediment and their preliminary applications

The vertical concentration profiles in non-equilibrium sediment transport processes generally deviate from the equilibrium concentration distribution of suspended sediment. The non-equilibrium concentration profile formulas currently available are those of Han and Brown, respectively. However, the complexity of these formulas limits their use in practical calculations. To improve the usefulness of these formulas, the unknown parameters in Han’s formula are reduced from three to two, and the thre...     

Geochemical characteristics of phosphorus in surface sediments of two major Chinese mariculture areas: The Laizhou Bay and the coastal waters of the Zhangzi Island

Phosphorus (P) in surface sediments of the Laizhou Bay (LB) and the coastal waters around the Zhangzi Island (ZI) was analyzed. Six forms of P were separated — exchangeable or loosely sorbed P (Ads–P), aluminum-bound P (Al–P), iron-bound P (Fe–P), authigenic apatite plus CaCO₃-bound P plus biogenic apatite (Ca–P), detrital apatite plus other inorganic P (De–P) and organic P (OP). The average contents of P in the LB were in the order: De–P > OP > Ca–P > Fe–P > Ads–P > Al–P; in the ZI, the corresponding order was De–P > OP > Fe–P > Ca–P > Ads–P > Al–P. Due to the high nutrient loadings from the surrounding rivers, TP contents in sediments of the LB were higher than in those of the ZI. The potential bio-available P (Ads–P and OP) accounted for 14.7% and 24.2% of TP in sediments of the LB and the ZI, respectively.     

Erweiterte Grundgleichungen zur Bestimmung der Verdunstung auf dem Meer aus dem klein- und großräumigen Feuchteaustausch

Zusammenfassung Es wird eine anwendbare Verallgemeinerung der Konzeptionen angestrebt, nachdenen man die Verdunstung auf dem Meere aus dem atmosphärischen Wasseraustausch bestimmt. Dabei ergeben sich einige Hinweise auf mehrere übliche aber kaum erkannte Vernachlässigungen. Unteranderem werden die Effekte der Druckänderungen sowie — durch Anwendung abgewogener Mittelwerte — die Wirkung des fluktuativen Massentransports in Rechnung gestellt. Jene werden meist in Makroturbulenzbetrachtungen, diese in Mikroturbulenzbetrachtungen zum Feuchteaustausch vernachlässigt, obgleich sie die Größenordnung der berechneten Verdunstungswerte erreichen und beispielsweise zur Erklärung der bei labiler Schichtung beobachteten deutlichen Verschiedenheit der gebräuchlichen Austauschkoeffizienten für Wasserdampf und Wärme beitragen können.

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Extended basic equations concerning the estimation of evaporation on the ocean from small- and large-scale exchange of moisture

Summary This paper aims at an applicable generalisation of the conceptions adapted to the estimation of evaporation on the ocean from theaustausch of water in the atmosphere. It gives some hints to several common but scarcely known neglects. Among others, the effects of the variation of pressure, and — by applying weighted means — those of the fluctuative transport of mass are taken into account. Usually the first effects are neglected in considerations on large-scale exchange of atmospheric water, the second ones in small-scale considerations although they may be of the same order of magnitude as the computed evaporation and may be able, for instance, to support an interpretation of the distinct inequalities of the usual eddy transfer coefficients of water vapour and heat observed in unstable lapse conditions.

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Equations fondamentales étendues pour dériver du flux micro- et macroturbulent de l'humidité l'évaporation à la surface de la mer

Résumé Le but de ce travail est de trouver une généralisation applicable des conceptions employées à dériver de l'échange atmosphérique de l'eau l'évaporation à la surface de la mer. Au cours de ces recherches on rencontre plusieurs indications de diverses négligences en usage qui, cependant, ne sont guère reconnues. Entre autre, on tient compte des effets dus aux variations de la pression atmosphérique et — en appliquant des moyennes pondérées — on considère également l'action du transport fluctuatif de la masse. Conventionnellement, le premier effet est négligé dans des considérations à base macroturbulente pendant que le deuxième effet est laissé de côté en cas de la diffusion microturbulente, bien que ces deux effets puissent atteindre la même ordre de grandeur que l'évaporation calculée et qu'ils puissent, par exemple, aider à expliquer les diversités distinctes des coefficients d'échange de l'humidité et de la chaleur observées quand la répartition des masses suivant la verticale est instable.

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Für Anregungen und die Möglichkeit zur Bearbeitung der diskutierten Fragen ist der Verfasser Herrn Professor Dr. Hermann Flohn zu Dank verpflichtet.     

Die Bilanz des Längstransportes in der Brandungszone

Zusammenfassung Für den in der Brandungszone unter dem Einfluß der Brandungsenergie und der Brandungsströmungen küstenparallel verlaufenden Materialstrom wird unter Verwendung integraler Größen die Bilanzgleichung aufgestellt. Es zeigt sich, daß der Materialstrom und damit die An- und Ablandung längs der Küste eindeutig durch die Verteilung der Brandungsenergie und die Größe der Brandungsströmung bestimmt wird. Anhand von fünf Beispielen werden die Anwendung der Methode erläutert und typische Vorgänge an der Küste erklärt.

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The balance of littoral transport in the surf zone

Summary By means of integrals the balance equation is set up for the drift of material which under the influence of the surf energy and the longshore current in the surf zone is flowing parallel to the coast. This equation plainly represents the material drift and, hence, accretion and erosion along the coast as a function of the distribution of the surf energy and the strength of the longshore current. Finally, five examples are presented showing how to apply the method and explaining typical shore processes.

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Le bilan du transport des matériaux le long de la côte dans la zone du déferlement

Résumé Au moyen d'intégrales on a établi l'équation de bilan pour le courant des matériaux qui, sous l'influence de l'énergie et des courants de déferlement, est dirigé en sens parallèle à la côte dans la zone du déferlement. Cette équation représente nettement les courants des matériaux dirigés vers le large et vers la plage en fonction de la répartition de l'énergie et de la puissance du courant de déferlement. Enfin, cinq exemples sont présentés pour exposer l'application de la méthode et pour expliquer des procès typiques rencontrés sur les côtes.

     

The Ångström compensation pyrheliometer and the absolute pyrheliometric scale

Summary In a preliminary study the mean marginal error due to the edgeeffect of the old standard pyrheliometer ofK. Ångström is found to be +2.4 per cent. A series of the new model Å pyrheliometer designed at the Laboratory of the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute has given the same result concerning the discrepancy between the new model and the standard model of theK. Ångström pyrheliometer. The new scale based on calculated constants of the Å pyrheliometers without any marginal error gives one per cent higher values than the Smithsonian absolute scale of 1948. According to the Smithsonian Institution this remaining difference is due to an error in the Å original and also in the new pyrheliometers, caused by a laterally reflected radiation on the back of the strips. This problem will be subjected to further experiments.

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Résumé Dans une étude préliminaire l'erreur marginale du pyrhéliomètre Standard deK. Ångström du nouveau modèle, sortie de l'atelier de construction de l'Institut Météorologique et Hydrologique de Suède a donnée le même résultat sur la divergence entre le nouveau pyrhéliomètre et le pyrhéliomètre du type original. La nouvelle échelle basée sur des constantes calculées des pyrhéliomètres d'Ångström sans erreur marginale donne un pour cent plus hautes valeurs que l'échelle absolue du Smithsonian Institution de 1948. Si cette différence d'un pour cent est causée par une inégalité du flux d'énergie reflété en arrière des lamelles réceptrices comme il est supposé par le Smithsonian Institution, n'est pas encore élucidé pour le pyrhéliomètre original, mais sera l'objet de recherche future.

     

Non-equilibrium interphase heat and mass transfer during two-phase flow in porous media—Theoretical considerations and modeling

Mass and heat transfer occurring across phase-interfaces in multi-phase flow in porous media are mostly approximated using equilibrium relationships or empirical kinetic models. However, when the characteristic time of flow is smaller than that of mass or heat transfer, non-equilibrium situations may arise. Commonly, empirical approaches are used in such cases. There are only few works in the literature that use physically-based models for these transfer terms. In fact, one would expect physical approaches to modeling kinetic interphase mass and heat transfer to contain the interfacial area between the phases as a variable. Recently, a two-phase flow and solute transport model was developed that included interfacial area as a state variable [36]. In that model, interphase mass transfer was modeled as a kinetic process.     

A transport phase diagram for pore-level correlated porous media

Transport in porous media is often characterized by the advection–dispersion equation, with the dispersion coefficient as the most important parameter that links the hydrodynamics to the transport processes. Morphological properties of any porous medium, such as pore size distribution, network topology, and correlation length control transport. In this study we explore the impact of correlation length on transport regime using pore-network modelling. Earlier direct simulation studies of dispersion in carbonate and sandstone rocks showed larger dispersion compared to granular homogenous sandpacks. However, in these studies, isolation of the impact of correlation length on transport regime was not possible due to the fundamentally different pore morphologies and pore-size distributions. Against this limitation, we simulate advection–dispersion transport for a wide range of Péclet numbers in unstructured irregular networks with “different” correlation lengths but “identical” pore size distributions and pore morphologies. Our simulation results show an increase in the magnitudes of the estimated dispersion coefficients in correlated networks compared to uncorrelated ones in the advection-controlled regime. The range of the Péclet numbers which dictate mixed advection–diffusion regime considerably reduces in the correlated networks. The findings emphasize the critical role of correlation length which is depicted in a conceptual transport phase diagram and the importance of accounting for the micro-scale correlation lengths into predictive stochastic pore-scale modelling.     

The transport of trace substances in the atmosphere and their implications for the general circulation of the stratosphere

Summary Considerations concerning the distribution of artificial radioactive substances in the troposphere point to the occurrence of stratospheric-tropospheric exchange in the region of the discontinuity between the tropical and middle latitude tropopause. Computations of the horizontal flux of ozone in the lower stratosphere and examination of the distribution of the tracer tungsten 185 in the stratosphere suggest that the trace substances are transported northwards from the tropical stratosphere by the action of transient eddy processes in which northward moving parcels of air are sinking and southward moving parcels are rising. The amount of ozone transported varies seasonally and is a maximum in the late winter and spring. The total transport appears sufficient to account for the observed spring build-up of ozone in middle and high latitudes. The eddies invoked are shown to be consistent with the observed countergradient transport of heat in the lower stratosphere, the pattern of stratospheric isentropes and the covariance values found from meridional and vertical velocities. The combined results indicate a new view concerning the mechanics of stratospheric motions as contrasted with the classical ideas of mean meridional motions.

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Zusammenfassung Erwägungen im Hinblick auf die Verteilung künstlicher radio-aktiver Bestandteile in der Troposphäre deuten auf das Auftreten von stratosphärischem-troposphärischem Austausch in der Diskontinuäts-Zone zwischen der tropischen und mittleren Breite in der «Tropopause». Berechnungen des horizontalen Einfliessens des Ozons in der niedrigeren Stratosphäre und Untersuchung der Verteilung des Spurmaterials Wolfram 185 in der Stratosphäre deuten darauf hin, dass die Spuren-Bestandteile nordwärts transportiert werden von der tropischen Stratosphäre durch die Wirkung vorübergehender Wirbel-Prozesse; die Luftmassen, die sich in nördlicher Richtung bewegen, sinken, die in südlicher Bewegung, steigen. Der transportierte Ozon-Gehalt wechselt mit der Jahreszeit, ist maximal spät in Winter und Frühjahr. Der gesamte Transport erscheint genügend, um den beobachteten Frühjahrs-Zuwachs von Ozon in den mittleren und höheren Breitegraden zu rechtfertingen. Die in Betracht kommenden Wirbel scheinen in Übereinstimmung zu sein mit dem beobachtetem Hitze-Transport in der niedrigen Stratosphäre entgegen dem Aufstieg, mit dem üblichen Verlauf der stratosphärischen Isotropen und den Werten, die für die Co-Varianten gefunden wurden von meridionalen und vertikalen Geschwindigkeiten. Die kombinierten Resultate geben einen neuen Einblick in den Mechanismus der strato-sphärischen Strömungen in Kontrast zu den klassischen Ideen einer durchschnittlichen meridionalen Strömung.

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Résumé Des considérations concernant la distribution des substances radio-actives artificielles dans la troposphère indiquent l'occurrence d'un échange strato-sphérique-troposphérique dans la région de discontinuité entre les latitudes tropicales et centrales de la tropopause. Des computations du flux horizontal d'ozone dans la basse stratosphère et l'examen de la distribution du traceur tungstène 185 dans la stratosphère suggèrent que les trace-substances soient transportées vers le nord de la stratosphère tropicale par l'action des procès de tourbillon transitoire dans lequel les parcelles d'air mouvant vers le nord s'enfoncent et les parcelles mouvant vers le sud s'élèvent. Le total d'ozone transporté varie periodiquement et devient maximum pendant la fin de l'hiver et du printemps. Le transport total paraît suffisant à justifier l'élévation de l'ozone observée au printemps aux latitudes moyennes et supérieures. Les tourbillons invoqués se montrent consistant au contregradient du transport de chaleur observé dans la basse stratosphère, le modèle des isentropes et les valeurs covariées se trouvent dependre des vitesses méridionales et verticales. Les résultats combinés indiquent une nouvelle vue sur les mécaniques des mouvements stratosphériques contrastant des idées classiques aux mouvements moyens méridionaux.

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The research reported in this article was sponsored by the Atomic Energy Commission under Contract No. AT (30-1) 2241 and by the Geophysics Research Directorate, Air Force Cambridge Research Center, under Contract No. AF 19 (604) 5223.     

Effective macroscopic transport parameters between parallel plates with constant concentration boundaries

A macroscopic transport model is developed, following the Taylor shear dispersion analysis procedure, for a 2D laminar shear flow between parallel plates possessing a constant specified concentration. This idealized geometry models flow with contaminant dissolution at pore-scale in a contaminant source zone and flow in a rock fracture with dissolving walls. We upscale a macroscopic transient transport model with effective transport coefficients of mean velocity, macroscopic dispersion, and first-order mass transfer rate. To validate the macroscopic model the mean concentration, covariance, and wall concentration gradient are compared to the results of numerical simulations of the advection–diffusion equation and the Graetz solution. Results indicate that in the presence of local-scale variations and constant concentration boundaries, the upscaled mean velocity and macrodispersion coefficient differ from those of the Taylor–Aris dispersion, and the mass transfer flux described by the first-order mass transfer model is larger than the diffusive mass flux from the constant wall. In addition, the upscaled first-order mass transfer coefficient in the macroscopic model depends only on the plate gap and diffusion coefficient. Therefore, the upscaled first-order mass transfer coefficient is independent of the mean velocity and travel distance, leading to a constant pore-scale Sherwood number of 12. By contrast, the effective Sherwood number determined by the diffusive mass flux is a function of the Peclet number for small Peclet number, and approaches a constant of 10.3 for large Peclet number.     

2DV modelling of sediment transport processes over full-scale ripples in regular asymmetric oscillatory flow

Wave-induced, steep vortex ripples are ubiquitous features in shallow coastal seas and it is therefore important to fully understand and model the sediment transport processes that occur over them. To this end, two two-dimensional vertical (2DV) models have been critically tested against detailed velocity and sediment concentration measurements above mobile ripples in regular asymmetric oscillatory flow. The two models are a k–ω turbulence-closure model and a discrete-vortex, particle-tracking (DVPT) model, while the data are obtained in the Aberdeen oscillatory flow tunnel (AOFT). The models and the data demonstrate that the time-dependent velocity and suspended sediment concentration above the ripple are dominated by the generation of lee-side vortices and their subsequent ejection at flow reversal. The DVPT model predicts the positions and strengths of the vortices reasonably well, but tends to overpredict the velocity close to the ripple surface. The k–ω model, on the other hand, underpredicts the height to which the vortices are lifted, but is better able to predict the velocity close to the bed. In terms of the cycle- and ripple-averaged horizontal velocity, both models are able to reproduce the observed offshore flow close to and below the ripple crest and the DVPT model is able to produce the onshore flow higher up. In the vicinity of the vortices, the DVPT model better represents the concentration (because of its better prediction of vorticity). The k–ω model, on the other hand, better represents the concentration close to the ripple surface and higher up in the flow (because of the better representation of the near-bed flow and background turbulence). The measured and predicted cycle- and ripple-averaged suspended sediment concentrations are in reasonable agreement and demonstrate the expected region of exponential decay. The models are able to reproduce the observed offshore cycle- and ripple-averaged suspended sediment flux from the ripple troughs upwards, and as a result, produce net offshore suspended sediment transport rates that are in reasonable agreement. The net measured offshore suspended transport rate, based on the integration of fluxes, was found to be consistent with the total net offshore transport measured in the tunnel as a whole once the onshore transport resulting from ripple migration was taken into account, as would be expected. This demonstrates the importance of models being able to predict ripple-migration rates. However, at present neither of the models is able to do so.     

Monsune und Tropenorkane im Witterungsklima und in der Groß-Zirkulation

Zusammenfassung In dem Ablauf des Jahresganges im Witterungsklima und der allgemeinen Zirkulation wirken sich monsunale Einflüsse aus. Das im Winter zeitweise auftretende ozeanwärts gerichtete Abströmen kontinental-arktischer Luft erfolgt in Zusammenhang mit Kaltlufthöhentrögen. Im Sommer bedingen die Nordwärtsverlagerung der nordatlantischen und nordpazifischen Hochdruckgebiete und der Aufbau von warmen Höhenhochdruckgebieten über Hochasien und Arizona dazwischenliegende Höhentröge, mit denen die monsunale Advektion maritimer Luftmassen in das Festland hinein verbunden ist. Auch das indische Monsuntief befindet sich in einem Höhentrog zwischen dem hochasiatischen Höhenhoch und dem nordwärts vorgerückten Hoch aus dem Südindischen Ozean. Die festländischen sommerlichen Höhenhochs üben eine blockierende Wirkung auf die Zirkulation aus. Der ebenfalls in die Großzirkulation eingreifende interhemisphärische Austausch von Masse und Moment tritt witterungsklimatisch am meisten dadurch in Erscheinung, daß die Entstehungsgebiete der tropischen Wirbelstürme den Trögen der jeweils anderen, winterlichen Halbkugel zugeordnet sind.

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Witterungsklima (weather-climate) and general circulation considered in the light of monsoons and tropical storms

Summary The course of the annual variations of theWitterungs-klima and of the general circulation is subjected to monsoonal influences. The outflow of arctic air masses from the continent to the ocean occurring temporarily during the winter is related to upper air troughs of cold air. In summer, the northward displacement of the North Atlantic and the North Pacific anticyclones and the formation of warm upper air highs above Central Asia and Arizona cause intermediate air troughs to develop which, on their part, are related to the monsoonal advection of maritime air masses to the continent. The Indian monsoonal low is likewise located in an upper air trough between the upper air high above Central Asia and the high pressure area that advanced from the South Indian Ocean. In summer, the continental upper air highs exert a blocking action on the circulation. The interhemispheric exchange of mass and momentum which, too, reflects on the large scale circulation is mainly called into existence in its weather-climatic respect owing to the fact that the areas of origin of tropical storms (hurricanes, typhoons) are co-ordinated to the througs of the opposite winterly hemisphere.

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Witterungsklima (climat du temps) et circulation générale considérés sous l'aspect des moussons et des cyclones tropicaux

Résumé Le cours des variations annuelles duWitterungsklima et de la circulation générale est sujet à des influences des moussons. Les écoulements à partir du continent vers l'océan des masses d'air arctiques, se produisant de temps en temps pendant l'hiver, sont reliés à des talwegs d'air froid en altitude. En été, le déplacement vers le nord des anticyclones de l'Atlantique Nord et du Pacifique Nord ainsi que la formation d'anticyclones en grande altitude au-dessus de l'Asie Centrale et d'Arizone causent la formation des hauts talwegs intercalés entre les anticyclones mentionnés ci-dessus. Ces talwegs ont rapport à l'advection de mousson des masses d'air maritime vers le continent. La dépression de mousson indien se trouve dans un talweg en altitude entre le haut anticyclone de l'Asie Centrale et l'anticyclone de l'océan Indien du Sud qui s'est déplacé vers le Nord. En été, les anticyclones continentaux en altitude ont un effet bloquant sur la circulation. L'échange interhémisphérique de masses et de moment qui réflète également sur la circulation générale se montre d'une manière la plus prononcée dans le «climat du temps» par suite du fait que les régions d'origine des cyclones tropicaux sont coordonnées à des trains de talwegs de l'hémisphère hivernal opposé.

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Herrn Professor Dr. Gerhard Schott zum 90. Geburtstag gewidmet.