A COMPARISON OF THREE METHODS USED FOR CALCULATING THE LONGITUDE FROM A PAIR OF WELL BALANCED STARS

Abstract

Because it was necessary to calculate the longitude many times from observed ex-meridian zenith distances, it was considered advisable to examine the various methods for achieving this in order to find which method was the most efficient.     

NOTE ON THE REDUCTION OF CIRCUMMERIDIAN ALTITUDES TO THE MERIDIAN

Abstract

The method of reducing circummeridian altitudes or zenith distances to the meridian, using the factors m and n as tabulated by Chauvenet, is well known. The following method, which does not use these factars, has been faund both more convenient and more accurate in practice. The formula can be easily obtained by expanding m and n in powers of t, but far the sake af campleteness the derivatian is here given from the beginning.     

LAPLACE POINTS IN MODERATE AND HIGH LATITUDES

Abstract

A method of applying azimuth control to a survey is given in which the precision with which the astronomical position must be determined is proportional to tan (altitude) instead of tan (latitude) as in the orthodox method. By using the method with stars of low altitude the observational difficulties are greatly reduced, especially in high latitudes. Methods of observation and reduction are discussed which make it possible to avoid altogether special observations to determine the astronomical position.     

单频RTK动态解算的卡尔曼滤波算法研究

本文针对单频RTK提出了一种快速动态定位卡尔曼滤波算法,该方法使用C码和L1观测值,用模型改正对流层干延迟,双差大气延迟分解为测站大气天顶延迟和投影函数,与流动站位置以及站间单差模糊度组成观测方程进行卡尔曼滤波,得到单差模糊度浮点解及方差阵,通过星间求差得到双差模糊度浮点解及方差阵,结合MLAMBDA方法实时动态确定模糊度。经实测数据和IGS站数据验证该算法具有较好定位结果。     

The angular characteristics of Moon-based Earth observations

ABSTRACT

The Moon, Earth’s only natural satellite, is a potential new platform for Earth observation. Moreover, with the wide applicability of the angular information from remote sensing data, it has been attracting increasingly more attention. Accordingly, this study focuses on the angular characteristics of Moon-based Earth observations. Using ephemeris DE430 and Earth orientation parameters, the position and attitude of the Sun, Earth, and Moon were obtained and their coordinates normalized to a single framework using coordinate transformations between the related reference systems. Then, an angular geometric model of Moon-based Earth observations was constructed, and the corresponding angular algorithms were presented. The results revealed the angular range and distribution characteristics of Moon-based Earth observations. For every point on the surface of the Earth, the view and solar zenith angles all vary widely, which decreases with increasing latitude. The view and solar zenith angles all vary widely with the largest range of values in the equatorial and polar regions and a smaller range of values in mid-latitudes. Furthermore, the range of solar angles of Moon-based Earth observations is the same as that of all-time solar angles, indicating the potential for monitoring and understanding large-scale geoscientific phenomena using Moon-based Earth observations.     

AERIAL CAMERA CALIBRATION

Abstract

Accidents will happen and the surveyor is therefore sometimes required to do the best he can with photographs taken with an uncalibrated camera which is not available for subsequent calibration. This note outlines a method by which an approximate principal distance can be obtained for high oblique air photographs from points appearing in the photographs.     

AN AZIMUTH OBSERVATION IN THE ALMUCANTAR

Abstract

The idea elaborated is that of making an oxtra-meridian altitude observation at a specific pre-chosen altitude, viz. an altitude equal to the known latitude of the place of observation; the reduction of the observation, to obtain the azimuth angle, is thereby simplified quite considerably.     

提高对流层天顶总延迟解算精度的新方法探讨

对流层天顶总延迟的解算精度,直接影响长基线解算的精度和大气水汽含量的计算精度。文中提出克利金内插法解算天顶总延迟的新方法,并利用南极长城站和周边IGS跟踪站的GPS数据,通过高精度解算软件GAMIT/GLOBK,解算出长城站上空的对流层天顶总延迟,将其与利用内插方法解算的天顶总延迟进行了对比分析,得出:利用该内插方法获取的南极长城站在夏季的天顶总延迟的均方差可达0.2mm,这对今后GPS高精度定位和GPS气象学应用来说,具有重要意义。     

天文定位中几何精度衰减因子最小值分析

天文定位是一种重要的导航定位方法,被广泛应用于大地天文测量、天文航海等领域。该方法中观测恒星的选择会影响最终的定位精度,目前缺少针对同时测定经纬度天文定位算法中最优选星问题的研究。随着观测仪器自动化水平的提高,观测数据的获取变得更加高效,这就要求研究最优的选星方案以达到最高的定位精度。本文借鉴卫星导航中几何精度衰减因子GDOP的概念,研究了天顶距法中恒星的数量以及分布对定位精度的影响,最后通过仿真试验和实测数据验证得到结论:在天顶距观测误差的统计特性一定时,GDOP能够用来描述恒星的分布对定位结果影响的优劣,且观测的恒星方位角均匀分布时定位误差最小。考虑到不同高度的恒星天顶距大气折射改正残差不同,在实际测量中应尽量采用等天顶距且方位角均匀分布的恒星。     

LATITUDE BY GARAVITO'S METHOD

Abstract

The method of Garavito, Director of the Observatory of Bogota, consists in choosing two stars, one to the north of the zenith, the other to the south, such that the algebraical half-sum of their declinations may not differ much—at the limit 15′ or 20′—from the latitude of the place. As a matter of fact the difference may be slightly greater without inconvenience.     

INTERVISIBLE FEATURES

Abstract

It is frequently required to find whether a feature A of height h ₀ will interrupt the view between two other features A₁ and A₂, of heights h ₁ and h ₂ respectively. Suppose that the right line from A₁ to A₂, whose zenith distance is ζ at A₁, has a height h at A; it is then obvious that no more is necessary than to compute h and compare it with the known height h ₀ of the feature A.     

Atmospheric refraction effects in Earth remote sensing

Just as refraction moves the apparent positions of stars from their true ones, it slightly distorts the view of Earth from space, as well as affecting the angle at which sunlight or moonlight illuminates its surface. The astronomer's problem is to correct the apparent position of a star for refraction, relating the position as observed from Earth to the true position. By contrast, the space observer's problem is to obtain the true (refracted) surface zenith angle z′ of illumination or of viewing, when the zenith angle z₀ of the ray in space is known, and to correct for the apparent horizontal displacement of the surface point being viewed. This paper solves the problem of the refraction angle for a spherical atmosphere by a simple, analytic solution, depending only on the surface index of refraction μ₀ namely: sin(z₀)=μ₀ sin(z′). The problem of the apparent horizontal displacement of the point viewed is also solved analytically, but approximately, because the result depends weakly on an assumed vertical structure of the atmosphere. The results are useful primarily in cases where observation must be done at large zenith angle, or low Sun angle.     

Viewing Angle Effect on the Remote Sensing Monitoring of Wheat and Rice Crops

Abstract

Bidirectional reflectance characteristics of a wheat and a rice canopy were studied using radiometric measurements over the two canopies with an Exotech Radiometer Model 100AX. For both rice and wheat, the measurements exhibited significant variations in reflectance amplitude for varying viewing zenith angles and their values decreased from backward to forward scattering direction. Reflectance obtained its maximum value in the backscatter direction for the viewing angle that corresponds approximately to the solar zenith angle at the time of measurements. Canopy background condition (irrigated or non‐irrigated) was an important determining factor of canopy reflectance particularly in the near‐infrared region of the solar spectrum. Furthermore, bidirectional response characteristics of a vegetation canopy were influenced by the amount of vegetation cover.     

Disconnected Cartographies and Immappancy

Abstract

Manual shading, traditionally produced manually by specifically trained cartographers, is still considered superior to automatic methods, particularly for mountainous landscapes. However, manual shading is time-consuming and its results depend on the cartographer and as such difficult to replicate consistently. For this reason there is a need to create an automatic method to standardize its results. A crucial aspect of manual shading is the continuous change of light direction (azimuth) and angle (zenith) in order to better highlight discrete landforms. Automatic hillshading algorithms, widely available in many geographic information systems (GIS) applications, do not provide this feature. This may cause the resulting shaded relief to appear flat in some areas, particularly in areas where the light source is parallel to the mountain ridge. In this work we present a GIS tool to enhance the visual quality of hillshading. We developed a technique based on clustering aspect to provide a seamless change of lighting throughout the scene. We also provide tools to change the light zenith according to either elevation or slope. This way the cartographer has more room for customizing the shaded relief representation. Moreover, the method is completely automatic and this guarantees consistent and reproducible results. This method has been embedded into an ArcGIS toolbox.     

基准站观测数据加密方法及其在差分GNSS后处理中的应用

当基准站采样率低于流动站时,不能用常规差分全球卫星导航系统（Global Navigation Satellite System,GNSS）后处理方法得到流动站所有历元坐标。针对此问题,给出了基于精密单点定位（precise point positioning,PPP）模型构造基准站非采样点上虚拟观测值的方法。该方法将接收机钟差、对流层天顶湿延迟从观测值误差中分离出来,同消电离层模糊度一起进行估计,利用基准站真实坐标获得卫地距,在此基础上计算相邻两个观测历元的残差进而拟合历元间非采样点残差,与卫地距、各项估计误差一起生成虚拟观测值。该方法保持了虚拟观测值的误差特性,尤其是基准站与流动站间的共性误差。该方法仅加密基准站数据,对流动站没有影响。算例结果表明,基准站在采样间隔30 s范围内,使用该方法加密的虚拟观测值与真实值有较好的一致性,采样间隔分别为30 s、15 s、5 s的虚拟测码伪距和载波相位观测值偏差的标准中误差分别在0.2 m和1.2周左右、0.1 m和0.7周左右、0.05 m和0.2周左右;在30 s采样间隔情况下,按照该方法处理后仍能满足厘米级定位精度的要求。     

NOTES ON THE OBSERVATION OF ALTITUDE FOR TIME

Abstract

Observations of the altitude of stars is a common method for the determination of local time. When the time is required with no great accuracy and when, therefore, simple instruments are employed, the method is particularly suitable. In the conduct of the observation with a theodolite there arise certain questions to which some reference may be made here with a view to lending some assistance to the student.     

THE TRIANGULATION OF CULTIVATION OVERLOOKED BY HIGH GROUND

Abstract

14. General. Except for one or two located by an auxiliary triangle or by ray and distance, every point is fixed by a fully observed triangle of which the base is a pair of pillars. To justify the larger and more expensive party required for this method a high rate of observation must be maintained. The two observing periods available each day in the northern Sudan are the 3–4 hours starting just before dawn, and the 2–3 hours which end with sunset. Since moveluent in the cultivation is generally slow and on foot or by donkey, the longer morning period is best used for observing the single angles at each of a series of points there. The shorter and hotter afternoon period may then be used for observing the rounds of angles at each of a pair of pillars, which can normally be reached or at least approached by car. Asfar as possible the points observed to from these pillars will be those occupied on either the preceding or following morning, so that the triangles can be closed as soon as possible. Up to nine triangles have been closed in a day.     

Diurnal trends in reflectance of bare soil surfaces in Southern Tunisia

In an area in southern Tunisia diurnal trends of bare soil surfaces have been investigated. The study area comprises two main parts: the footslopes and the playas.

The diurnal variation of the bidirectional reflectance factor (BRF) in nadir direction on the footslopes is dominated by the effect of roughness. Maximum BRF is found with small solar zenith angles due to decrease in shadow related to surface roughness. For Landsat overpass it implies that the normal ground reflectance for a bare surface on the footslopes at identical surface conditions is up to 10% lower in December (solar zenith angle 63 degrees) than in June (28 degrees). Band ratios on the footslopes hardly change with variation of zenith angle.

The diurnal variation in the playas is dominated by moisture. Asymmetric daily curves, with the lowest reflectance in the morning have been found. Four phenomena are reported which can be held responsible for this effect. This daily effect of moisture is weather dependent and may obscure long time changes of TM signal. In band ratios even with TM band 7 the diurnal moisture change can hardly be detected.     

A VLBI Delay Model for Radio Sources at a Finite Distance

A relativistic delay model for Earth-based very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) observation of sources at finite distances is derived. The model directly provides the VLBI delay in the scale of terrestrial time. The effect of the curved wave front is represented by using a pseudo source vector K = (R ₁ + R ₂)/(R ₁ + R ₂), and the variation of the baseline vector due to the difference of arrival time is taken into account up to the second-order by using Halley’s method. The precision of the new VLBI delay model is 1 ps for all radio sources above 100 km altitude from the Earth’s surface in Earth-based VLBI observation. Simple correction terms (parallax effect) are obtained, which can also adopt the consensus model (e.g. International Earth Rotation and Reference Frames Service conventions) to finite-distance radio source at R > 10 pc with the same precision. The new model may enable estimation of distance to the radio source directly with VLBI delay data.