The First Observed Cloud Echoes and Microphysical Parameter Retrievals by China's 94-GHz Cloud Radar

By using the cloud echoes first successfully observed by China's indigenous 94-GHz SKY cloud radar, the macrostructure and microphysical properties of drizzling stratocumulus clouds in Anhui Province on 8 June2013 are analyzed, and the detection capability of this cloud radar is discussed. The results are as follows.(1) The cloud radar is able to observe the time-varying macroscopic and microphysical parameters of clouds,and it can reveal the microscopic structure and small-scale changes of clouds.(2) The velocity spectral width of cloud droplets is small, but the spectral width of the cloud containing both cloud droplets and drizzle is large. When the spectral width is more than 0.4 m s-1, the radar reflectivity factor is larger(over –10 dBZ).(3) The radar's sensitivity is comparatively higher because the minimum radar reflectivity factor is about–35 dBZ in this experiment, which exceeds the threshold for detecting the linear depolarized ratio(LDR) of stratocumulus(commonly –11 to –14 dBZ; decreases with increasing turbulence).(4) After distinguishing of cloud droplets from drizzle, cloud liquid water content and particle effective radius are retrieved. The liquid water content of drizzle is lower than that of cloud droplets at the same radar reflectivity factor.     

华北地区一次积层混合云降水的数值模拟研究

利用WRF ARW中尺度数值模式对2009年4月18日华北地区的一次积层混合云系降水进行模拟。首先,对实况的天气形势和雷达反射率及垂直剖面进行分析;并通过垂直剖面对其流场结构概念图进行分析;然后,通过对比,模拟的自然降水分布与实测结果基本一致,模拟的雷达组合反射率和雷达反射率的垂直剖面与实测结果也基本一致;通过分析云中各要素的分布,了解了积层混合云系的微物理特征和动力特征;最后对积层混合云降水机制进行探讨。结果表明：积层混合云水凝物含水量分布不均匀,对流云和层状云相互粘连跨接,水平方向充分混合,雨水的大值中心、云水的大值中心及冰晶的大值区相互对应,存在播撒-供给机制。从动力场来看,在低层对流云区域垂直上升速度较大,高层对流云区域的旁侧有较明显的下沉气流,云区低层存在辐合,高层存在辐散,此种配置有利于维持云系的发展。积层混合云不仅在层状云区有层状云的简单的＂播撒-供给＂机制,或在积状云区有粒子群的循环增长机制,而且可以发生层云—积云间的粒子群交换。     

A 35-GHz Polarimetric Doppler Radar and Its Application for Observing Clouds Associated with Typhoon Nuri

Millimeter-wavelength radar has proved to be an effective instrument for cloud observation and research. In this study, 8-mm-wavelength cloud radar (MMCR) with Doppler and polarization capabilities was used to investigate cloud dynamics in China for the first time. Its design, system specifications, calibration, and application in measuring clouds associated with typhoon are discussed in this article. The cloud radar measurements of radar reflectivity (Z), Doppler velocity (Vr), velocity spectrum width (Sw) and the depolar-ization ratio (LDR) at vertical incidence were used to analyze the microphysical and dynamic processes of the cloud system and precipitation associated with Typhoon Nuri, which occurred in southern China in August 2008. The results show the reflectivity observed using MMCR to be consistent with the echo height and the melting-layer location data obtained by the nearby China S-band new-generation weather radar (SA), but the Ka-band MMCR provided more detailed structural information about clouds and weak precipitation data than did the SA radar. The variation of radar reflectivity and LDR in vertical structure reveals the transformation of particle phase from ice to water. The vertical velocity and velocity spectrum width of MMCR observations indicate an updraft and strong turbulence in the stratiform cloud layer. MMCR provides a valuable new technology for meteorological research in China.     

用多普勒雷达反射率调整模式大气的云微物理变量

一种简单云分析方案, 用于由多普勒天气雷达反射率反演中尺度大气模式初值分析中的云微物理变量（云水混合比和雨水混合比）和空气湿度变量（比湿），使模式积分初始场反映出观测空间的云微物理特征以及哪些空间位置上的大气处于饱和状态。应用于2002年6月梅雨期安徽省马鞍山市一次降水过程的临近数值预报试验结果表明，模式预报的大气综合反射率与雷达观测的回波图像相近，由云微物理变量变化表示的模式云系演变与雷达观测的回波图像一致, 伴随模拟的中小尺度云系, 模式大气能很快调整出合理的中小尺度流场辐散、辐合结构；它们明显好于模式初始场不引入雷达反射率时的结果，即这种方法对改进临近数值天气预报准确率是有效的。     

Observational Characteristics of Cloud Vertical Profiles over the Continent of East Asia from the CloudSat Data

The CloudSat satellite data from June 2006 to April 2011 are used to investigate the characteristics of cloud vertical profiles over East Asia(20°-50°N,80°-120°E),with particular emphasis on the profiles of precipitative clouds in comparison with those of nonprecipitative clouds,as well as the seasonal variations of these profiles.There are some obvious differences between the precipitative and nonprecipitative cloud profiles.Generally,precipitative clouds mainly locate below 8 km with radar reflectivity in the range of-20 to 15 dBZ and maximum values appearing within 2-4-km height,and the clouds usually reach the ground;while nonprecipitative clouds locate in the layers of 4-12 km with radar reflectivity between-28 and 0 dBZ and maximum values within 8-10-km height.There are also some differences among the liquid precipitative,solid precipitative,and possible drizzle precipitative cloud profiles.In precipitative clouds,radar reflectivity increases rapidly from 11 to 7 km in vertical,implying that condensation and collision-coalescence processes play a crucial role in the formation of large-size drops.The frequency distribution of temperature at-15℃ is consistent with the highest frequency of radar reflectivity in solid precipitative clouds,which suggests that the temperatures near-15℃ are conductive to deposition and accretion processes.The vertical profiles of liquid precipitative clouds show almost the same distributions in spring,summer,and autumn but with differences in winter at mainly lower levels.In contrast,the vertical profiles of solid precipitative clouds change from spring to winter with an alternate double and single high-frequency core,which is consistent with variations of the frequency distribution of temperature at-15℃.The vertical profiles of nonprecipitative clouds show a little change with season.The observations also show that the precipitation events over East Asia are mostly related to deep convective clouds and nimbostratus clouds.These results are expected to be useful for evaluation of weather and climate models and for improvement of microphysical parameterizations in numerical models.     

QVP方法在双偏振雷达冬季降水观测中的应用

双偏振雷达是研究降水微物理过程的重要探测设备,为研究我国东部沿海地区冬季降水的微物理特性,选取2019-2020年不同天气背景下(包含相态转换)影响上海的冬季降水过程,基于上海南汇WSR-88D双偏振雷达资料,采用准垂直廓线(QVP)方法反演3次降水过程的反射率因子ZH、差分反射率ZDR和相关系数ρhv的高度-时间廓线...     

Influence of drizzle on Z–M relationships in warm clouds

This paper addresses the sensitivity of the relationships between radar reflectivity (Z) and liquid water content (M) for liquid water clouds to microphysical drizzle parameters by means of simulated radar observation at a frequency of 3 GHz of modeled cumulus clouds. A power law relationship for non drizzling clouds with water content as high as 3 gm^− 3: Z_c = 0.026 M_c^1.61 is numerically derived and agreed with previous empirical relationships relative to cumulus and stratocumulus. This relationship is then used to explore the influence of drizzle on the correlation between radar reflectively and water content. Due to their large diameters with respect to cloud droplets, drizzle sized drops dominate radar reflectivity but do not carry the cloud water content so that reflectivity and liquid water content are expected to be not correlated in clouds containing drizzle. It is shown that for congestus or extreme congestus cumuli, microphysical conditions for which the Z_c–M_c relationship can be used with a tolerance of 5 and 10% are provided whereas for humilis or mediocris cumuli, the presence of drizzle breaks down the Z_c–M_c relationship whatever the situations.     

Influence of drizzle on Z–M relationships in warm clouds

This paper addresses the sensitivity of the relationships between radar reflectivity (Z) and liquid water content (M) for liquid water clouds to microphysical drizzle parameters by means of simulated radar observation at a frequency of 3 GHz of modeled cumulus clouds. A power law relationship for non drizzling clouds with water content as high as 3 gm^− 3: Z_c = 0.026 M_c^1.61 is numerically derived and agreed with previous empirical relationships relative to cumulus and stratocumulus. This relationship is then used to explore the influence of drizzle on the correlation between radar reflectively and water content. Due to their large diameters with respect to cloud droplets, drizzle sized drops dominate radar reflectivity but do not carry the cloud water content so that reflectivity and liquid water content are expected to be not correlated in clouds containing drizzle. It is shown that for congestus or extreme congestus cumuli, microphysical conditions for which the Z_c–M_c relationship can be used with a tolerance of 5 and 10% are provided whereas for humilis or mediocris cumuli, the presence of drizzle breaks down the Z_c–M_c relationship whatever the situations.     

毫米波云雷达功率谱密度数据的检验和 在弱降水滴谱反演中的应用研究

本文首先利用数值模拟的方法,分析了利用毫米波云雷达功率谱密度反演雨滴谱时,降水粒子米散射效应、空气湍流、空气上升速度等对雨滴谱和液态水含量等参数反演的影响;建立了功率谱密度处理及其直接反演雨滴谱、液态水含量、降水强度和空气上升速度的方法;并利用2012年7月在云南腾冲观测的二次弱降水数据,采用毫米波雷达和Ku波段微降水雷达观测的回波强度、径向速度垂直廓线以及780 m高度上的功率谱密度对比的方法,以及毫米波云雷达观测的780 m高度上功率谱密度、回波强度与地面雨滴谱计算得到的这些量的对比方法,分析了毫米波雷达数据的可靠性;并将780 m高度上毫米波雷达反演的雨滴谱与地面雨滴谱数据进行了对比,分析了毫米波雷达反演的雨滴谱的准确性;分析了毫米波雷达回波强度偏弱的原因,讨论了该高度以下降水对毫米波雷达衰减的影响。结果表明:空气湍流对弱降水微物理参数反演影响不大,而空气上升速度和米散射效应均对反演结果有一定影响;毫米波雷达观测到的径向速度和功率谱密度与微降水雷达比较一致,回波强度的垂直廓线的形状与微降水雷达也比较一致,但毫米波雷达观测的回波强度偏弱;与雨滴谱计算值相比,毫米波雷达观测的低层的回波强度也偏弱,天线上的积水是造成毫米波雷达回波强度变弱的主要原因。毫米波雷达观测的低层的功率谱密度与地面雨滴谱观测的数据形状比较一致,但有一定的位移。毫米波雷达反演的雨滴谱与地面观测的谱型和粒子大小也比较一致。这些结果初步验证了毫米波雷达观测的功率谱密度及其反演方法的可靠性。     

基于CloudSat卫星分析西太平洋台风云系的垂直结构及其微物理特征

基于2012—2014年CloudSat卫星数据,按照热带气旋强度分类的6个等级以及沿台风中心的径向距离,分析西太平洋台风云系的垂直结构及其微物理特征。研究表明:(1)不同强度的台风云系中均是单层云占主导,多层云中双层云出现比例最高;随着台风强度的增强,距离台风中心250km之内,单层云分布位置更加集中且垂直厚度较厚,而450km之外的单层云一直集中在7~15km,厚度较薄;随着台风强度的增强,距离台风中心250km之内的双层云中的底层云和顶层云均增厚且分布位置更加趋于集中,云间距变窄,而450km之外顶层云和底层云较薄,云间距一直较大。(2)台风云系中,深对流云、高层云、卷云与其他云类型相比,分布的垂直范围较广,出现频率较高,分布的位置会随着台风强度变化和沿台风中心径向距离的增加有明显的变化。(3)随着台风强度的增强,近台风中心5km以上的回波有明显增强,除此高值区外,发展较为成熟的台风,距台风中心450km之外也会出现多个明显的柱状回波高值区。(4)近台风中心液水含量的值和冰水含量的值随强度变化均有明显增加,但外围云系中也有分散的冰水含量高值中心但分布高度相对较低,在10km附近;液水粒子数浓度的高值区域与液水含量的高值区非常对应,而冰水含量的高值区位于冰粒子数浓度的高值区下方,表明小的冰粒子被较强的对流活动带到了高处,而大的冰粒子集中在云系较低处。     

Meteorological research applications of MM-wave radar

Summary MM-wave radar has now been developed well beyond that of simply providing qualitative information about the presence or location of clouds. Uncertainty about cloud properties leading to gross errors in climate model results has provided the impetus to develop mm-wave radars into reliable, quantitative tools for studying clouds. Besides depicting the small-scale (a few tens of meters) features of tenuous cirrus and low level stratus clouds, the 3 mm and 8 mm wavelength radars described here can examine the physical structure, dynamics and small-scale turbulence of clouds when used alone. Polarization capability of these radars is now generating new information about the deformity of cloud particles needed for calculations of radiation budgets of clouds. When used with other sensors such as lidar or radiometers, additional cloud microphysical information can be retrieved. We discuss here two different ways to calculate ice mass content profiles from radar/lidar data and from radar/IR radiometer data. Mm-wave radar is most suited for these calculations because of complications introduced by 1) Bragg (refractivity) scatter, 2) the lower resolution, and 3) ground clutter effects at longer wavelengths. Combining radar and microwave radiometer data is shown to provide liquid water profiles in warm marine stratus clouds. The small size and weight of mm-wave radars make them particularly suitable for use on aircraft and satellite platforms and we show recent results from an airborne system to make that point. The technology has now advanced to the point where unattended, vertically-pointing, Doppler mm-wave radars will soon be commonly used in research applications.With 6 Figures     

基于雷达反射率因子的降水性层状云中雨滴谱参数的反演方法与检验研究

对基于雷达反射率因子观测数据的层状云降水粒子谱参数反演算法进行研究。（1）给出层状云降水粒子谱参数的反演理论和反演算法流程;（2）选取吉林省伊通县的一次降水层状云过程进行反演试验和验证分析,利用雷达反射率因子观测数据反演得到雨滴平均直径和数浓度参数,并用放置在伊通县气象局观测场中的Parsivel激光雨滴谱仪的实测数据与近地层反演结果进行对比。结果发现,通过反演算法计算得到的滴谱与实测滴谱的变化趋势基本相同,而且反演的雨滴平均直径和数浓度在量级和数值上的大小与实测数据具有良好的一致性,说明该反演方法用于从现有天气雷达回波强度数据中挖掘出降水性层状云的微物理参数是可行的。      

雷达反射率因子在中尺度云分辨模式初始化中的应用Ⅰ：云微物理量和垂直速度的反演

对于水平网格距小于10 km的高分辨率非静力平衡的显式云分辨模式,云微物理量的初始化以及物理量之间的相互协调是十分重要的,并且一直是云分析领域的一个难题。考虑在云雨处于定常状态的前提下,根据暖云过程,可得到云中水成物之间相互转化以及与垂直速度的约束关系,而雨水含量跟雷达反射率因子(Z)有关。因此,采用合肥新一代天气雷达2003年7月5日02时(北京时)的观测资料,针对雷达探测的特点对雷达原始数据进行了坐标转换,并进行了插值处理和简单的质量控制,然后依据Z-qr关系和定常暖云方案,反演了雨水混合比(qr)、云水混合比(qc)、水汽混合比(qv)和垂直速度(w)。结果表明,由此得到的雷达回波主要特征及量值分布与雷达站的CAPPI图像基本一致;水汽、云水、雨水和垂直速度量值大小的分布与雷达回波强度的分布也是吻合的,体现出了云中水成物和垂直速度的三维分布结构;各物理量的量值也符合梅雨锋暴雨的特点,梅雨锋积层混合云系中层状云和对流云的差别十分明显。在较强的回波区,雨水在6 km以下含量较大,最大值位于4 km左右,可超过3.0 g/kg;上升速度在5 km左右最大,最大值超过5 m/s;云水含量大值区位于5 km以上,在7 km高度上达到最大,超过3.0 g/kg;雨滴末速度虽然上下比较一致,一般几米每秒,但在5 km左右为大值区。     

太赫兹频段雷达探测的冰云微物理参数反演算法模拟研究

在假设冰云粒子呈球形以及粒子谱服从对数正态分布的条件下,利用离散偶极子近似法(DDA),计算出太赫兹频段(220 GHz)冰云粒子的雷达反射率因子,及其与瑞利假设下雷达反射率因子的比值。忽略衰减和多次散射的影响,根据太赫兹波段冰云的雷达反射率因子,基于最优估计理论反演冰云的微物理参数,并验证该算法的可靠性。反演结果表明,当冰云粒子大小在设定的尺度范围内时,有效粒子半径(r_e)的反演误差小于4%,粒子谱宽(σ)的误差小于2.5%、粒子数密度(N_T)的误差小于1%,冰水含量(IWC)的误差小于5%。还分析了当N_T和σ为定值时,反演结果随粒子尺寸的变化情况,当冰云粒子尺寸在模拟计算设定的范围内时,r_e的反演误差小于0.04%,σ的反演误差小于0.02%,N_T的反演误差小于0.50%,IWC的反演误差小于0.08%,如果冰云粒子大小超出模拟计算设置的范围,反演误差随着r_e增加而增大。该结果证明了基于最优估计理论反演得到的冰云微物理参数与模拟设定值有良好的一致性,说明该方法可应用于太赫兹频段云雷达的冰云观测及云微物理参数的反演和研究。      

青藏高原那曲夏季云中水成物分布特征的毫米波雷达观测

结合2014年7—8月第三次青藏高原大气科学试验获得的毫米波雷达资料与探空温度资料,利用模糊逻辑法反演了西藏那曲地区夏季云中水成物的相态并对其分布特征开展了研究。首先,分析了层积云、雨层云以及深对流云的典型个例,发现三类云反射率因子、多普勒速度、速度谱宽以及退偏振因子垂直分布均有较大差别,相应的云中水凝物的回波特征与相态分布差别也较大。其次,研究了液相、混合相和冰相云层的云雷达探测特征,发现液相云层在0℃层以下的暖云层和0℃层以上的过冷水云层均具有反射率因子高值中心,混合云层的反射率因子高值中心随高度上升变化不大,冰云层的反射率因子高值主要集中在6 km以上,且随高度上升而趋于集中;三种相态云层出现频率高值分别集中在地面以上1、2～3、3～4 km高度层;液相云层在上午出现频率最高,混合相云层高频率发生在下午,冰相云层在晚上的出现频率最高。三种相态云层出现在上午的高度与下午和晚上相比较低,出现在晚上的高度范围最大;液相云层厚度一般小于0.3 km,冰相云层云顶位于9 km左右高度层时平均厚度最大,中云内的混合相和冰相厚度变化较小。     

SACOL站冰云粒子下降末速度的反演及其时空分布特征研究

冰云是影响气候变化最为重要的因子之一,其生命周期的变化在很大程度上决定了冰云的气候辐射效应。冰云粒子下降末速度是影响冰云生命周期的关键参数。为了开展对冰云粒子下降末速度的研究,利用兰州大学半干旱气候与环境监测站Ka波段毫米波云雷达2013年8月至2015年7月连续观测数据,反演了冰云粒子的下降末速度（V_t）,并根据雷达反射率因子（Z）与V_t的关系计算了拟合因子a、b的值;在此基础上应用聚类分析方法,对比分析了4种不同特性冰云Z、V_t和拟合因子a、b的时、空分布特征,进而尝试通过参数垂直分布特征识别研究云中不同位置上云微物理过程的变化。结果表明:冰云粒子下降末速度的分布与雷达反射率因子有很好的对应,最大频率都出现在距离地面约7 km高度处,且具有显著的季节变化,粒子下降末速度在暖季较冷季可增大25%,峰值出现在6月和9月;云层较厚且持续时间长的第一、三类冰云,其雷达反射率因子、粒子下降末速度及拟合因子a和b的平均值都显著大于云层较薄且持续时间短的第二、四类云。垂直方向上,Z、V_t和拟合因子b从云顶到云底随着高度的降低呈现先增大后减小的趋势,体现了云粒子在云顶区域成核和水汽凝华效应,随着粒子在下落过程中碰并增长,云滴粒子逐渐增大,水汽的凝华和粒子的聚合起主要作用,最后在云底部分,云粒子蒸发、升华减小消亡的过程。由此表明中纬度干旱半干旱地区冰云是从云顶到云底自上而下的形成过程。      

Retrieving microphysical properties and air motion of cirrus clouds based on the doppler moments method using cloud radar

Radar parameters including radar reflectivity,Doppler velocity,and Doppler spectrum width were obtained from Doppler spectrum moments.The Doppler spectrum moment is the convolution of both the particle spectrum and the mean air vertical motion.Unlike strong precipitation,the motion of particles in cirrus clouds is quite close to the air motion around them.In this study,a method of Doppler moments was developed and used to retrieve cirrus cloud microphysical properties such as the mean air vertical velocity,mass-weighted diameter,effective particle size,and ice content.Ice content values were retrieved using both the Doppler spectrum method and classic Z-IWC(radar reflectivity-ice water content) relationships;however,the former is a more reasonable method.     

Analysis of the Microphysical Properties of a Stratiform Rain Event Using an L-Band Profiler Radar

This paper investigates spatial and temporal distributions of the microphysical properties of precipitating stratiform clouds based on Doppler spectra of rain particles observed by an L-band profiler radar.The retrieval of raindrop size distributions（RSDs） is accomplished through eliminating vertical air motion and isolating the terminal fall velocity of raindrops in the observed Doppler velocity spectrum.The microphysical properties of raindrops in a broad stratiform region with weak convective cells are studied using data collected from a 1320-MHz wind profiler radar in Huayin,Shaanxi Province on 14 May 2009.RSDs and gamma function parameters are retrieved at altitudes between 700 and 3000 m above the surface,below a melting layer.It is found that the altitude of the maximum number of raindrops was closely related to the surface rain rate.The maximum number of large drops was observed at lower altitudes earlier in the precipitation event but at higher altitudes in later periods,suggesting decreases in the numbers of large and medium size raindrops.These decreases may have been caused by the breakup of larger drops and evaporation of smaller drops as they fell.The number of medium size drops decreased with increasing altitude.The relationship between reflectivity and liquid water content during this precipitation event was Z = 1.69×10~4M~（1.5）,and the relationship between reflectivity and rain intensity was Z = 256I~（1.4）.     

Ka波段云雷达晴空回波垂直结构及变化特征

利用2017—2019年中国气象局大气探测试验基地Ka波段云雷达资料,结合地面自动气象站、激光云高仪资料,从强度、速度、线性退极化比以及晴空回波高度等方面,分析晴空回波垂直结构和变化特征。基于激光和微波对粒子半径和数密度散射的差异,区分云和晴空回波。结果表明:Ka波段云雷达探测到的晴空回波在边界层主要包含层状湍流回波和点状昆虫回波,且回波顶高在3000 m以内。晴空回波强度和高度具有明显的季节和日变化特征,冬季回波顶高较低,夏季回波顶高较高,与地面气温具有很好的相关性,每年的1,2,11,12月几乎没有晴空回波,而7月和8月回波顶平均高度最高。晴空回波反射率因子为-40~-15 dBZ,其中层状湍流回波反射率因子概率密度峰值处反射率因子为-35 dBZ,点状昆虫回波反射率因子概率密度峰值处反射率因子为-30 dBZ。晴空回波垂直移动速度为-1.5~+0.5 m·s-1,整体呈下沉运动。层状湍流回波线性退极化比较点状昆虫回波稍大,一般为-10~-5 dB,点状昆虫回波线性退极化比一般为-15~-8 dB。     

Airborne measurements of the impact of ground-based glaciogenic cloud seeding on orographic precipitation

Data from in situ probes and a vertically-pointing mm-wave Doppler radar aboard a research aircraft are used to study the cloud microphysical effect of glaciogenic seeding of cold-season orographic clouds. A previous study (Geerts et al., 2010) has shown that radar reflectivity tends to be higher during seeding periods in a shallow layer above the ground downwind of ground-based silver iodide (AgI) nuclei generators. This finding is based on seven flights, conducted over a mountain in Wyoming (the Unites States), each with a no-seeding period followed by a seeding period. In order to assess this impact, geographically fixed flight tracks were flown over a target mountain, both upwind and downwind of the AgI generators. This paper examines data from the same flights for further evidence of the cloud seeding impact. Composite radar data show that the low-level reflectivity increase is best defined upwind of the mountain crest and downwind of the point where the cloud base intersects the terrain. The main argument that this increase can be attributed to AgI seeding is that it is confined to a shallow layer near the ground where the flow is turbulent. Yet during two flights when clouds were cumuliform and coherent updrafts to flight level were recorded by the radar, the seeding impact was evident in the flight-level updrafts (about 610 m above the mountain peak) as a significant increase in the ice crystal concentration in all size bins. The seeding effect appears short-lived as it is not apparent just downwind of the crest.