Local advection of momentum,heat, and moisture in micrometeorology

The local advection of momentum, heat and moisture in micrometeorology due to a horizontal inhomogeneity in surface conditions is numerically investigated by a higher-order turbulence closure model which includes equations for the mean quantities, turbulent fluxes, and the viscous dissipation rate. The application of the two-dimensional model in this paper deals with the simulation of the flow from an extensive smooth dry area to a grassy wet terrain. The mean wind speed, temperature, and humidity distributions in the resulting internal boundary layer downstream of the surface discontinuity are determined such that the energy and moisture balances at the Earth's surface are satisfied.Numerical calculations of the mean temperature and humidity profiles are compared with available observed ones. The results include the advective effects on turbulent flux distributions, surface energy balance, evaporation rate, and Bowen ratio. The sensitivity of the predicted mean profiles and turbulent flux distributions to the surface relative humidity, thermal stratification, and the roughness change is discussed.NRC-NAS Resident Research Associate at AFCRL.     

Conditional statistics of vertical heat fluxes in local advection conditions

Turbulent fluctuations have been investigated in the internal boundary layer (IBL) which forms after a dry-to-wet surface transition. The IBL is defined as that part of the atmospheric surface layer where the influence of the downstream surface is noticeable. The results of the application of three different quadrant analysis techniques are presented. The three techniques, in increasing order of the amount of information supplied, provide:

1. the diurnal variation of quadrant contribution (C _i), number fraction (T _i) and conditional average (% MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafeart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXafv3ySLgzGmvETj2BSbqefm0B1jxALjhiov2D% aebbfv3ySLgzGueE0jxyaibaiiYdd9qrFfea0dXdf9vqai-hEir8Ve% ea0de9qq-hbrpepeea0db9q8as0-LqLs-Jirpepeea0-as0Fb9pgea% 0lrP0xe9Fve9Fve9qapdbaqaaeGacaGaaiaabeqaamaabaabcaGcba% GaeyykJeUabm4DayaafaGabm4CayaafaGaeyOkJe-aaSbaaSqaaiaa% dMgaaeqaaaaa!4215!\[\langle w's'\rangle _i \], with s = T or q) of vertical sensible and latent heat fluxes,
2. the quadrant contribution and number of samples of different sizes depending on the relative magnitude of each sample, and
3. the distribution of the nondimensional probability density function.

The results show that in the IBL the vertical flux of sensible heat is maintained by (i) a small fraction of large samples with warm air carried upwards, and (ii) a larger fraction of small samples with cool air carried downwards. Both processes are almost equal in importance. In the morning and near the top of the IBL negative temperature fluctuations are limited by the near-uniform temperature conditions upstream and above the IBL. This limitation reduces, at that location, the conditional average of the sinking motions of cool air. Closer to the wet surface the negative temperature fluctuations are less susceptible to the above mentioned limitation. As a consequence contributions from all four quadrants are almost equal leading to a very small vertical heat flux. In the presence of a temperature inversion over both the upstream and the downstream terrain, shear-generated turbulence appears to be the cause of the relative abundance of sinking motions of warm air and rising motions of cool air, leading to a reversal of the sensible heat flux. The latent heat flux is positive (i.e. directed away from the surface) at all times and is maintained in almost equal amount by (i) a small number of large magnitude samples with moist air carried upwards, and (ii) small magnitude samples with sinking motions of dry air. These sinking motions of dry air are far more numerous, especially in the morning, but their conditional average is very small. The abundance of sinking motions of dry air is attributed to the fact that over the downstream terrain evaporation is greatly enhanced, leading to a skewed w′q′ signal. This skewness is clearly visible in the w′q′-probability density distribution of the morning runs. In the evening the asymmetry between these two different contributions disappears. This is because evaporation is greatly reduced and large positive humidity fluctuations no longer occur.     

An advective mixed-layer model for heat and moisture incorporating an analytic expression for moisture entrainment

A slab mixed-layer model with zero-order entrainment for both temperature and humidity is developed in order to examine the relative magnitude of advective and turbulence flux convergence effects. The model formulation provides an analytic function for the ratio of surface-layer to entrainment-layer humidity flux. Model results are compared with measured mixed-layer properties over one day at a coastal location. It is concluded that the model is highly successful at simulating the mixed-layer depth, and mean mixed-layer humidity. It is suggested that a first-order model may be more appropriate for the latter half of the day when the mixed-layer depth is decreasing due to the dominance of advection over vertical turbulence flux convergence.     

Mixed-layer heat advection and entrainment during the sea breeze

A model is developed to simulate the potential temperature and the height of the mixed layer under advection conditions. It includes analytic expressions for the effects of mixed-layer conditions upwind of the interface between two different surfaces on the development of the mixed layer downwind from the interface. Model performance is evaluated against tethersonde data obtained on two summer days during sea breeze flow in Vancouver, Canada. It is found that the mixed-layer height and temperature over the ocean has a small but noticeable effect on the development of the mixed layer observed 10 km inland from the coast. For these two clear days, the subsidence velocity at the inversion base capping the mixed layer is estimated to be about 30 mm s^–1 from late morning to late afternoon. When the effects of subsidence are included in the model, the mixed-layer height is considerably underpredicted, while the prediction for the mean potential temperature in the mixed layer is considerably improved. Good predictions for both height and temperature can be obtained when values for the heat entrainment ratio,c, 0.44 and 0.68 for these two days respectively for the period from 1000 to 1300 LAT, were used. These values are estimated using an equation including the additional effects on heat entrainment due to the mechanical mixing caused by wind shear at the top of the mixed layer and surface friction. The contribution of wind shear to entrainment was equal to, or greater than, that from buoyant convection resulting from the surface heat flux. Strong wind shear occurred near the top of the mixed layer between the lower level inland flow and the return flow aloft in the sea breeze circulation.Symbols c entrainment parameter for sensible heat - c _p specific heat of air at constant pressure, 1010 J kg^–1 K^–1 - d ₁ the thickness of velocity shear at the mixed-layer top, m - Q _H surface sensible heat flux, W m^–2 - u _m mean mixed-layer wind speed, m s^–1 - u _* friction velocity at the surface, m s^–1 - w subsidence velocity, m s^–1 - W subsidence warming,^oC s^–1 - w _e entrainment velocity, m s^–1 - w _* convection velocity in the mixed layer, m s^–1 - x downwind horizontal distance from the water-land interface, m - y dummy variable forx, m - Z height above the surface, m - Z _i height of capping inversion, m - Z _m mixed-layer depth, i.e.,Z _i–Z_s, m - Z _s height of the surface layer, m - lapse rate of potential temperature aboveZ _i, K m^–1 - potential temperature step atZ _i, K - u _h velocity step change at the mixed-layer top - _m mean mixed-layer potential temperature, K     

An empirical method for demonstrating the influence of heat flux on the shape of temperature spectra

An empirical method is presented which demonstrates the influence of heat flux on the shape of the temperature spectrum within the frequency interval associated with the majority of temperature-variance production. The method is tested on temperature spectra obtained over corn (Zea mays [L.]) and red pine (Pinus resinosa [Ait.]) surfaces with reasonably good results.     

Radiative heat flux divergence and heat regime in the lowest layer of the atmosphere

Summary The problem of the influence of radiative flux divergence and turbulent heat exchange on temperature of the near-ground layer of the atmosphere is considered. Different methods of calculating long-wave radiative flux divergence are discussed. The importance of different factors for the thermal regime of the near-ground layer is established by means of the theory of non-stationary heat exchange. The primary conclusions are: 1) temperature changes influenced by radiation and turbulence are not additive; this means that, strictly speaking, separate calculations of either radiative or turbulent temperature changes have no meaning, 2) the theory developed in this paper is sufficiently exact to show that there is a great influence of radiative flux divergence on the thermal regime of the near-ground layer of the atmosphere.

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Zusammenfassung Es wird das Problem des Einflusses der Strahlungsstrom-Divergenz und des turbulenten W?rmeaustausches auf die Temperatur der bodennahen Luftschicht behandelt. Verschiedene Methoden zur Berechnung der Divergenz der langwelligen Strahlungsstr?me werden diskutiert. Die Bedeutung der verschiedenen Faktoren für das Temperaturregime der bodennahen Luftschicht wird auf Grund der Theorie des nichtstation?ren W?rmeaustausches festgestellt. Die wichtigsten Schlu?folgerungen sind: 1. Die Temperatur?nderungen, die durch Strahlung und Turbulenz hervorgerufen werden, k?nnen nicht addiert werden; dies bedeutet, da? eine gesonderte Berechnung der Temperatur?nderungen durch Strahlungsvorg?nge bzw. durch den Turbulenzw?rmestrom streng genommen nicht zul?ssig ist. 2. Die in der vorliegenden Arbeit entwickelte Theorie erfa?t die tats?chlichen Vorg?nge mit genügender Genauigkeit, um zu beweisen, da? die Divergenz des langwelligen Strahlungsstromes für das Temperaturregime der bodennahen Luftschicht von gro?er Bedeutung ist.

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Résumé Les auteurs traitent ici le problème de l'influence de la divergence du flux de rayonnement ainsi que des échanges turbulents de chaleur sur la température des couches d'air voisines du sol. Ils discutent diverses méthodes permettant de calculer la divergence des flux de rayonnement de grande longueur d'onde. Ils constatent l'importance des divers facteurs sur le régime de température de ces couches d'air voisines du sol et cela sur la base de la théorie des échanges de chaleur non stationnaires. Les conclusions principales sont: 1) les variations de température dues au rayonnement d'une part et à la turbulence d'autre part ne peuvent être additionnées; cela signifie que, si l'on veut être exact, il n'est pas possible de calculer séparément les variations de température dues aux phénomènes de rayonnement, respectivement aux courants thermiques turbulents, 2) la théorie développée dans ce travail embrasse avec suffisamment de précision les effets réels pour démontrer que la divergence du flux de rayonnement à grande longueur d'ondes est d'une importance capitale pour le régime des températures des couches d'air voisines du sol.

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With 1 Figure

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Dedicated to Dr.W. M?rikofer on the occasion of his 70 th birthday.     

Computing the flux of moisture from net radiation and soil wetness

A study has been made of the time evolution of the flux of moisture E over grassland. The parameterization of E has been examined in order to formulate an equation depending on the net radiation flux and on bulk parameters which depend on the daily average meteorological situation and soil conditions. In particular the gradient of soil moisture has been recognized as playing a fundamental role in the time evolution of E(t). A time-dependent equation is proposed to compute in a statistical sense the irrigation needs or to forecast the hourly values of E(t), the maximum value E ₀ and the time at which this maximum happens.     

Application of a Shape-Preserving Advection Scheme to the Moisture Equation in an E-grid Regional Forecast Model

This paper presents a methodology which is very useful to design shape-preserving advection finite difference scheme on general E-grid horizontal arrangement of variables through introducing a two-step shape-preserving positive definite advection scheme in the moisture equation of the LASG-REM (LASG regional E-grid eta-coordinate forecast model). By trial-forecasting six local heavy raincases, the efficiency of the shape-preserving advection scheme in practical application has been examined. The LASG-REM with the shape-preserving advection scheme has a good forecasting ability for local precipitation.     

Evaluation of six parameterization approaches for the ground heat flux

Summary There are numerous approaches to the parameterization of the ground heat flux that use different input data, are valid for different times of the day, and deliver results of different quality. Six of these approaches are tested in this study: three approaches calculating the ground heat flux from net radiation, one approach using the turbulent sensible heat flux, one simplified in situ measurement approach, and the force-restore method. On the basis of a data set recorded during the LITFASS-2003 experiment, the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches are assessed. The quality of the best approaches (simplified measurement and force-restore) approximates that of the measured data set. An approach calculating the ground heat flux from net radiation and the diurnal amplitude of the soil surface temperature also delivers satisfactory daytime results. The remaining approaches all have such serious drawbacks that they should only be applied with care. Altogether, this study demonstrates that ground heat flux parameterization has the potential to produce results matching measured ones very well, if all conditions and restrictions of the respective approaches are taken into account.     

Impact of moisture flux convergence and soil moisture on precipitation: a case study for the southern United States with implications for the globe

Interactions between soil moisture, evapotranspiration (ET), atmospheric moisture fluxes and precipitation are complex. It is difficult to attribute the variations of one variable to another. In this study, we investigate the influence of atmospheric moisture fluxes and land surface soil moisture on local precipitation, with a focus on the southern United States (U.S.), a region with a strong humidity gradient and intense moisture fluxes. Experiments with the Weather Research and Forecasting model show that the variation of moisture flux convergence (MFC) is more important than that of soil moisture for precipitation variation over the southern U.S. Further analyses decompose the precipitation change into several contributing factors and show that MFC affects precipitation both directly through changing moisture inflow (wet areas) and indirectly by changing the precipitation efficiency (transitional zones). Soil moisture affects precipitation mainly by changing the precipitation efficiency, and secondly through direct surface ET contribution. The greatest soil moisture effects are over transitional zones. MFC is more important for the probability of heavier rainfall; soil moisture has much weaker impact on rainfall probability and its roles are similar for the probability of intermediate-to-heavy rainfall (>10 mm day^?1). Although MFC is more important than soil moisture for precipitation over most regions, the impact of soil moisture could be large over certain transitional regions. At the submonthly time scale, the African Sahel appears to be the only major region where soil moisture has a greater impact than MFC on precipitation. This study provides guidance to understanding and further investigation of the roles of local land surface processes and large-scale circulations on precipitation.     

An intercomparison between the surface heat flux feedback in five coupled models,COADS and the NCEP reanalysis

The surface heat flux feedback is estimated in the Atlantic and the extra-tropical Indo-Pacific, using monthly heat flux and sea surface temperature anomaly data from control simulations with five global climate models, and it is compared to estimates derived from COADS and the NCEP reanalysis. In all data sets, the heat flux feedback is negative nearly everywhere and damps the sea surface temperature anomalies. At extra-tropical latitudes, it is strongly dominated by the turbulent fluxes. The radiative feedback can be positive or negative, depending on location and season, but it remains small, except in some models in the tropical Atlantic. The negative heat flux feedback is strong in the mid-latitude storm tracks, exceeding 40 W m^–2 K^–1 at place, but in the Northern Hemisphere it is substantially underestimated in several models. The negative feedback weakens at high latitudes, although the models do not reproduce the weak positive feedback found in NCEP in the northern North Atlantic. The main differences are found in the tropical Atlantic where the heat flux feedback is weakly negative in some models , as in the observations, and strongly negative in others where it can exceed 30 W m^–2 K^–1 at large scales, in part because of a strong contribution of the radiative fluxes, in particular during spring. A comparison between models with similar atmospheric or oceanic components suggests that the atmospheric model is primarily responsible for the heat flux feedback differences at extra-tropical latitudes. In the tropical Atlantic, the ocean behavior plays an equal role. The differences in heat flux feedback in the tropical Atlantic are reflected in the sea surface temperature anomaly persistence, which is too small in models where the heat flux damping is large. A good representation of the heat flux feedback is thus required to simulate climate variability realistically.     

Surface renewal analysis for sensible and latent heat flux density

High frequency temperature measurements were recorded at five heights and surface renewal (SR) analysis was used to estimate sensible heat flux density (H) over 0.1 m tall grass. Traces of the temperature data showed ramp-like structures, and the mean amplitude and duration of these ramps were used to calculate H using structure functions. Data were compared with H values measured with a sonic anemometer. Latent heat flux density (E) was calculated using an energy balance and the results were compared with E computed from the sonic anemometer data. SR analysis provided good estimates of H for data recorded at all heights but the canopy top and at the highest measurement level, which was above the fully adjusted boundary layer.     

Streamwise heat flux budget in the atmospheric surface layer

Atmospheric surface-layer measurements of terms in the equation for the streamwise heat flux confirm previous results in both laboratory and atmosphere that the temperature-pressure gradient correlation acts as a sink, approximately equal in magnitude to the production term. The measured viscous dissipation term is independent of stability and represents less than 10% of the production term over the range of experimental stability conditions. Models for the temperature-pressure gradient correlation are compared with the measurements.     

On the definition of the flux of sensible heat

The definition of the sensible heat flux is examined in the light of a paper published by Brook (1978). We show that the convergence of the flux defined in this paper and that of the standard definition are related to different quantities and that care must be taken to ensure that compatible definitions are used.     

Diapycnal heat flux and mixed layer heat budget within the Atlantic Cold Tongue

Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the eastern tropical Atlantic are crucial for climate variability within the tropical belt. Despite this importance, state-of-the-art climate models show a large SST warm bias in this region. Knowledge about the seasonal mixed layer (ML) heat budget is a prerequisite for understanding SST mean state and its variability. Within this study all contributions to the seasonal ML heat budget are estimated at four locations within the Atlantic cold tongue (ACT) that are representative for the western (0°N, 23°W), central (0°N, 10°W) and eastern (0°N, 0°E) equatorial as well as the southern (10°S, 10°W) ACT. To estimate the contribution of the diapycnal heat flux due to turbulence an extensive data set of microstructure observations collected during ten research cruises between 2005 and 2012 is analyzed. The results for the equatorial ACT indicate that with the inclusion of the diapycnal heat flux the seasonal ML heat budget is balanced. Within the equatorial region, the diapycnal heat flux is essential for the development of the ACT. It dominates over all other cooling terms in the central and eastern equatorial ACT, while it is of similar size as the zonal advection in the western equatorial ACT. In contrast, the SST evolution in the southern ACT region can be explained entirely by air-sea heat fluxes.     

An evaluation of aircraft flux measurements of CO2, water vapor and sensible heat

Ground-based flux measurements of carbon dioxide and water vapor integrate physiological processes taking place on a field scale. Aircraft flux measurements have recently been undertaken to attempt to widen the scope of applicability of such measurements. However, because of the intermittency of turbulent transfer, flux measurements must be averaged over long periods of time or long distances to give reproducible results. This requirement makes it difficult to relate aircraft flux measurements to local surface processes. Flux measurements of CO₂, latent and sensible heat obtained from repeated passes in four directions and at three elevations over a homogeneous wheat-growing area are compared with ground-based measurements. Averages based on four runs of 4 km in length gave results consistent with ground-based measurements. The largest percentage differences were in the sensible heat flux. Cospectral analyses showed no significant high frequency losses for the data from flight levels of 25 and 50 m, but an underestimation of approximately 10% resulted at 10 m. Flight direction with respect to wind direction was relatively unimportant at 10 and 25 m but some effects were observed at 50 m. It was also shown that at 25 m, over a relatively smooth and homogeneous surface, the means of either three or four runs 4 km in length were similar to the means of 12–16 km runs. This confirms that at this altitude, most of the flux contribution is contained at wavelengths less than 4 km and that the mean of 3 to 4 passes accounts for most of the intermittency of turbulent transfer.     

Measurements of the turbulent heat flux over the sea

The turbulent heat flux was measured with two instruments simultaneously over the Baltic Sea by means of the eddy-correlation method. In one observational period, a small but noticeable divergence in heat flux was found, which may be explained by the advection of colder air. The parameterization of heat flux by the bulk method leads to a value for C _Hof 1 × 10^–3.