The solar albedo of hard X-ray flares

The calculations of Compton backscattering from the solar surface of flare X-rays performed by Tomblin (1972) are extended to higher energies. It is shown that the effect is even more pronounced in the 40 keV region and that it can lead to substantial corrections to the observed X-ray spectra.     

Microwave and hard X-ray bursts from solar flares

We have applied detailed theories of gyro-synchrotron emission and absorption in a magnetoactive plasma, X-ray production by the bremsstrahlung of non-thermal electrons on ambient hydrogen, and electron relaxation in a partially ionized and magnetized gas to the solar flare burst phenomenon. The hard X-ray and microwave bursts are shown to be consistent with a single source of non-thermal electrons, where both emissions arise from electrons with energies < mc ². Further-more, the experimental X-ray and microwave data allow us to deduce the properties of the electron distribution, and the values of the ambient magnetic field, the hydrogen density, and the size of the emitting region. The proposed model, although derived mostly from observations of the 7 July 1966 flare, is shown to be representative of this type of event.NAS-NRC Resident Research Associate.     

Correlation between solar microwave bursts and hard X-ray flares

We compared the microwave bursts with short timescale fine structure observed at 2.84 GHZ at Beijing Astronomical Observatory with the hard X-ry bursts (HXB) observed by the YOHKOH satellite during the period 1991 Oct–1992 Dec, and found that of the 20 microwave events, 12 had HXB counterparts. For the typical event of 1992-06-07, we analyzed the common quasi-period oscillations on the order of 10² s and calculated the parameters of the source region, together with a brief discussion.     

The interpretation of hard X-ray polarization measurements in solar flares

We review recent observations of polarization of moderately hard X-rays in solar flares and compare them with the predictions of recent detailed modeling of hard X-ray bremsstrahlung production by non-thermal electrons. We find that the recent advances in the complexity of the modeling lead to substantially lower predicted polarizations than in earlier models and more fully highlight how various parameters play a role in determining the polarization of the radiation field. The new predicted polarizations are comparable to those predicted by thermal modeling of solar flare hard X-ray production, and both are in agreement with the observations. In the light of these results, we propose new polarization observations with current generation instruments which could be used to discriminate between non-thermal and thermal models of hard X-ray production in solar flares.     

Radio and X-ray imaging observations of solar flares and coronal transients

We present a review of selected studies based upon simultaneous radio and X-ray observations of solar flares and coronal transients. We use primarily the observations made with large radio imaging instruments (VLA, BIMA, Nobeyama, and Nançay) along with Yohkoh/SXT and HXT and CGRO experiments. We review the recent work on millimeter imaging of solar flares, microwave and hard X-ray observations of footpoint emission from flaring loops, metric type IV continuum bursts, and coronal X-ray structures. We discuss the recent studies on thermal and nonthermal processes in coronal transients such as XBP flares, coronal X-ray jets, and active region transient brightenings.Dedicated to Cornelis de Jager     

Correlation of hard X-ray and type III bursts in solar flares

The observed correlations between X-ray and type III radio emissions from solar bursts are described by means of a bivariate distribution function. Procedures for determining the form of this distribution are described using a sample of data analyzed by Kane (1981). With the help of this distribution a model is constructed to explain the correlation between the X-ray spectral index and the ratio of X-ray to radio intensities. Implications of the model are discussed.     

The inter-relationship of hard X-ray and EUV bursts during solar flares

A comparison is made between the flux-versus-time profile in the EUV band and the thick target electron flux profile as inferred from hard X-rays for a number of moderately large solar flares. This complements Kane and Donnelly's (1971) study of small flares. The hard X-ray data are from ESRO TD-1A and the EUV inferred from SFD observations.Use of a ₂ minimising method shows that the best overall fit between the profile fine structures obtains for synchronism to 5 s which is within the timing accuracy. This suggests that neither conduction nor convection is fast enough as the primary mechanism of energy transport into the EUV flare and rather favours heating by the electrons themselves or by some MHD wave process much faster than acoustic waves.The electron power deposited, for a thick target model, is however far greater than the EUV luminosity for any reasonable assumptions about the area and depth over which EUV is emitted. This means that either most of the power deposited is conducted away to the optical flare or that only a fraction 1–10% of the X-ray emitting electrons are injected downwards. Recent work on H flare heating strongly favours the latter alternative - i.e. that electrons are mostly confined in the corona.     

Comparison of thermal and nonthermal hard X-ray emission in electron-heated solar flares

Using the results of numerical simulations of the solar atmospheric response to heating by nonthermal electron beams during solar flares, we have calculated the spatial and temporal evolution of both (i) the direct (beam-target) nonthermal bremsstrahlung and (ii) the thermal bremsstrahlung arising from the hot plasma energized by the electron beam. Typically, we find that below a certain cross-over energy E ^*, the emission is dominated by the thermal component, while at higher energies the direct bremsstrahlung component becomes more important. This cross-over energy is dependent on the position within the loop, generally increasing with height.We have also investigated the dependence of the cross-over energy E ^* on the parameters of the electron energy input. At the time of peak electron flux injection the cross-over energy E ^* can, for plausible parameters, be as high as 52 keV at the top 1 pixel, and as low as 16 keV at the bottom 1 pixel. We conclude that a possible reassessment of SMM HXIS data as an indicator of the thermal or nonthermal character of the primary energy release (based primarily on the geometric properties of the hard X-ray source) is required. Our results also point to the minimum photon energy that future instruments should observe (where practical, giving due consideration to detector sensitivity) in order to be sure that, in the context of the thick-target interpretation, the nonthermal component is not swamped by the self-consistent thermal counterpart created by the beam heating.     

The relation between hard X-ray and transition-region line emission in solar flares

Observational evidence suggests that both the hard X-ray and ultraviolet emission from the impulsive phase of flares result from an electron beam. We present the results of model calculations that are consistent with this theory. The impulsive phase is envisioned as occurring in many small magnetically confined loops, each of which maintains an electron beam for only a few seconds. This model successfully matches several observed aspects of the impulsive phase. The corona is heated to less than 2 × 10⁶ K, maximum enhanced emission occurs in lines formed near 10⁵ K, and there is only slight enhancement between 10⁵ and 2 × 10⁶ K. The slope of the observed relationship between hard X-ray and Ov 1371 Å emission is also matched, but the relative emission is not. The calculations indicate that UV emission lines formed below a temperature of about 10⁵ K will arise predominantly from the chromospheric region heated by the electron beam to transition region temperatures. Emission lines formed at higher temperatures will be produced in the transition region. This should be detectable in density-sensitive line ratios. To account successfully for the impulsive UV emission, the peak temperature in the impulsively heated loops must remain below about 2 × 10⁶ K. Thus our model implies that the impulsive heating takes place in different loops from the hotter gradual phase emission.     

Interpretation of the observed motions of hard X-ray sources in solar flares

In connection with the RHESSI satellite observations of solar flares, which have revealed new properties of hard X-ray sources during flares, we offer an interpretation of these properties. The observed motions of coronal and chromospheric sources are shown to be the consequences of three-dimensional magnetic reconnection at the separator in the corona. During the first (initial) flare phase, the reconnection process releases an excess of magnetic energy related predominantly to themagnetic tensions produced before the flare by shear plasma flows in the photosphere. The relaxation of a magnetic shear in the corona also explains the downward motion of the coronal source and the decrease in the separation between chromospheric sources. During the second (main) flare phase, ordinary reconnection dominates; it describes the energy release in the terms of the “standard model” of large eruptive flares accompanied by the rise of the coronal source and an increase in the separation between chromospheric sources.     

X-ray emission from solar flares

Solar X-ray Spectrometer (SOXS), the first space-borne solar astronomy experiment of India was designed to improve our current understanding of X-ray emission from the Sun in general and solar flares in particular. SOXS mission is composed of two solid state detectors, viz., Si and CZT semiconductors capable of observing the full disk Sun in X-ray energy range of 4–56 keV. The X-ray spectra of solar flares obtained by the Si detector in the 4–25 keV range show evidence of Fe and Fe/Ni line emission and multi-thermal plasma. The evolution of the break energy point that separates the thermal and non-thermal processes reveals increase with increasing flare plasma temperature. Small scale flare activities observed by both the detectors are found to be suitable to heat the active region corona; however their location appears to be in the transition region.     

First phase acceleration mechanisms and implications for hard X-ray burst models in solar flares

Requirements for the number of nonthermal electrons which must be accelerated in the impulsive phase of a flare are reviewed. These are uncertain by two orders of magnitude depending on whether hard X-rays above 25 keV are produced primarily by hot thermal electrons which contain a small fraction of the flare energy or by nonthermal streaming electrons which contain > 50% of the flare energy. Possible acceleration mechanisms are considered to see to what extent either X-ray production scenario can be considered viable. Direct electric field acceleration is shown to involve significant heating. In addition, candidate primary energy release mechanisms to convert stored magnetic energy into flare energy, steady reconnection and the tearing mode instability, transfer at least half of the stored energy into heat and most of the remaining energy to ions. Acceleration by electron plasma waves requires that the waves be driven to large amplitude by electrons with large streaming velocities or by anisotropic ion-acoustic waves which also require streaming electrons for their production. These in turn can only come from direct electric field acceleration since it is shown that ion-acoustic waves excited by the primary current cannot amplify electron plasma waves. Thus, wave acceleration is subject to the same limitations as direct electric field acceleration. It is concluded that at most 0.1% of the flare energy can be deposited into nonthermal streaming electrons with the energy conversion mechanisms as they have been proposed and known acceleration mechanisms. Thus, hard X-ray production above 10 keV primarily by hot thermal electrons is the only choice compatible with models for the primary energy release as they presently exist.     

Energy of microwave-emitting electrons and hard X-ray/microwave source model in solar flares

We present a new method of estimating the energy of microwave-emitting electrons from the observed rate of increase of the microwave flux relative to the hard X-ray flux measured at various energies during the rising phase of solar flares. A total of 22 flares observed simultaneously in hard X-rays (20–400 keV) and in microwaves (17 GHz) were analyzed in this way and the results are as follows:

1. The observed energy of X-rays which vary in proportion to the 17 GHz emission concentrates mostly below 100 keV with a median energy of 70 keV. Since the mean energy of electrons emitting 70 keV X-rays is ?130 keV or ?180 keV, depending on the assumed hard X-ray emission model (thin-target and thick-target, respectively), this photon energy strongly suggests that the 17 GHz emission comes mostly from electrons with an energy of less than a few hundred keV.
2. Correspondingly, the magnetic field strength in the microwave source is calculated to be 500–1000 G for the thick-target case and 1000–2000 G for the thin-target case. Finally, judging from the values of the source parameters required for the observed microwave fluxes, we conclude that the thick-target model in which precipitating electrons give rise to both X-rays and microwaves is consistent with the observations for at least 16 out of 22 flares examined.

     

On the hard X-ray spatial structure during the impulsive phase of solar flares

Using a simplified form of the bremsstrahlung cross-section, we obtain an analytic expression for the intensity of electron-beam-produced hard X-ray emission with depth in solar flares. The results show that footpoint emission is more likely than previously thought, and we discuss these results in the light of recent observations.Presidential Young Investigator.NAS/NRC Research Associate, on leave from CNIE, San Miguel, Argentina.     

Study of hard X-ray characteristics of solar flares - support for non-thermal processes

The spatial and angular distributions and also the energy spectrum of hard X-rays from solar flares have been studied in terms of the energy and angular distributions of the accelerated electron beam. The incident electron distributions as functions of column density have been computed by combining the analytical treatment of small-angle scattering with the Monte-Carlo calculations for large angle scattering. To start with monoenergetic electrons at 0°, 30°, and 60° incidence angles have been taken. Using the Bethe-Heitler total cross section and the Sauter differential cross section along with the calculated electron distributions, the bremsstrahlung flux and its angular distribution for different photon energies > 10 keV have been studied as function of column density. The shape of the calculated curves agrees with the observations of PVO/ISEE-3 lending support to the beamed thick-target model for X-ray generation with continuous injection.Physics Department, Vishwa Bharti Institution, Rainawari, Srinagar, India.     

Polarization of hard X-rays from solar flares

The polarization of hard solar X-radiation (> 10 keV) is calculated on the assumption that electrons get a non-isotropic velocity distribution in the initial phase of a flare. The brems-strahlung generated by nonthermal electrons spiralling around magnetic field lines with discrete pitch angles is considerably polarized if observed at approximately right angles to the magnetic field. In the energy range from 10 to 50 keV the degree of polarization is not strongly dependent on the photon energy. For pitch-angle distributions of the form sin² and cos², the polarization has opposite signs; it decreases appreciably at high photon energies. The observation of X-ray polarization will be useful in deducing the physical conditions in flares.     

Anisotropy of solar hard X-radiation during flares

The angular distribution of solar flare associated hard X-rays ( 10 keV) is calculated on the assumption that they originate as bremsstrahlung emission of energetic electrons with a power law spectrum. For the cross section the relativistic Sauter formula was used. Supposing the electrons to move in a fixed direction, the X-radiation is considerably anisotropic, especially at high photon energies. Taking into account a magnetic field, the anisotropy decreases with increasing pitch angles of the electrons. The anisotropic angular distribution of solar X-radiation seems to be connected with the centre-to-limb variation of hard X-ray bursts and with the correlation of shortwave fadeouts and geomagnetic crochets to H flares.     

On the origin of time delays in hard X-ray and gamma-ray emission of solar flares

The possibility of a strong pitch-angle diffusion regime as well as of turbulent propagation of energetic ions and electrons in flaring loops has been shown. The strong diffusion regime suggests that two regions with a high level of small-scale turbulence are formed in the magnetic trap. Such additional turbulent mirrors scatter energetic particles and, therefore, the flux of precipitating particles decreases and the mean lifetime of electrons and protons in a flaring loop grows. We cannot rule out that the turbulent propagation of the particles can be responsible for the energy dependence of hard X-ray delays as well as the time lag of the gamma-ray line peaks with respect to the hard X-ray peaks as the electrons and ions are accelerated simultaneously. The trap plus turbulent propagation model may also explain the lack of abundant population of 10–100 keV electrons in interplanetary space in proton-rich events and offers new possibilities for flare plasma diagnostics.     

Hard X-ray emission processes in solar flares

Solar hard X-ray emission is one of the most direct diagnostics of accelerated particles during solar flares. In this review, the current understanding of hard X-ray emission processes is discussed: first the different emission mechanisms (in particular inverse Compton radiation, energetic ion or electron bremsstrahlung) are presented and the plausibility of each of these mechanisms is discussed. Then, different types of hard X-ray models (thermal or non-thermal, homogeneous or inhomogeneous emission regions) are presented together with the comparison of their predictions with X-ray observations (spectral, spatial and temporal informations - directivity and polarization).Proceedings of the Second CESRA Workshop on Particle Acceleration and Trapping in Solar Flares, held at Aubigny-sur-Nère (France), 23–26 June, 1986.