The great Minoan eruption of Thera volcano and the ensuing tsunami in the Greek Archipelago

The eastern Mediterranean has been the cradle of many great civilizations. The history of the area consisted of glorious battles, heroic acts, and the rise and fall of great civilizations. But, sometimes, natural hazards became the cause for a new classification of the political, as well as of the military status quo of the region. The enormous eruption of the submarine volcano at the Greek island of Thera (Santorini) during the Bronze Age, around 1500 BC, is such a natural hazard. The tsunami generated by the eruption, literally wiped out the peace-loving Minoan civilization who inhabited the island of Crete. After the sea subsided, the configuration of the area was altered, and the decline of the Minoan principality on the Archipelago began. The present paper introduces evidence concerning the tsunami and states some of the after-effects which were partly responsible for the decline of the Minoan empire. All the information is gathered from historical sources and from recent research works. An effort has been made to include many of the theories introduced by various researchers through time concerning the event. Finally, information has been included from all known research, as well as from the author's own conclusions, in order to make the paper useful to future researchers.     

Slope movement crisis on the east flank of Mt. Etna volcano: Models for eruption triggering and forecasting

Benchmarks installed on the upper eastern flank of Mt. Etna in 1982 have subsided continually since then, with the rate of subsidence twice accelerating prior to eruptions. The first of these eruptions was in December 1985, and the second in September 1989. This pattern of accelerating downslope movement has also been observed prior to landslides, and recent work applying knowledge of the failure of materials has shown that analysis of the inverse rate of these movements can be used to predict the time of failure. Post-eruption analyses of geodetic or seismic data from volcanoes has shown that in several cases, this approach could have been used to forecast eruptions weeks in advance. Applying the same principles to the accelerating subsidence on Mt. Etna's eastern flank prior to the eruptions of 1985 and 1989 shows that rough estimates of eruption dates could have been obtained several months in advance. These observations also suggest a speculative eruption-triggering mechanism involving an interplay between slope creep deformation and extensional weakening over the zone of intrusion.     

Crustal volatile release at Merapi volcano; the 2006 earthquake and eruption events

High‐temperature gas in volcanic island arcs is widely considered to originate predominantly from the mantle wedge and from subducted sediments of the down‐going slab. Over the decade (1994–2005) prior to the 2006 eruption of Merapi volcano, summit fumarole CO₂ gas δ¹³C ratios are relatively constant at ?4.1 ± 0.3‰. In contrast, CO₂ samples taken during the 2006 eruption and after the May 26th 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake (M6.4) show a dramatic increase in carbon isotope ratios to ?2.4 ± 0.2‰. Directly following the earthquake (hypocentre depth 10–15 km), a 3–5‐fold increase in eruptive intensity was observed. The elevated carbon isotope gas data and the mid‐crustal depth of the earthquake source are consistent with crustal volatile components having been added during the 2006 events, most probably by the thick local limestone basement beneath Merapi. This ‘extra’ crustal gas likely played an important role in modifying the 2006 eruptive behaviour at Merapi and it appears that crustal volatiles are able to intensify and maintain eruptions independently of traditional magmatic recharge and fractionation processes.     

Post-eruptive lahars at Kali Putih following the 2010 eruption of Merapi volcano,Indonesia: occurrences and impacts

Following the 2010 VEI 4 eruption of Merapi volcano, more than 250 lahars were triggered during two rainy seasons from October 2010 to March 2012. This high number of post-eruption lahars mainly occurred in the Kali (valley) Putih watershed and was mostly associated with high-magnitude rainstorms. A lahar occurring on January 8, 2011, caused significant damage to homes in several communities, bridges, sabo dams, and agricultural crops. The aims of this contribution are to document the impacts of lahars on the Kali Putih watershed and specifically (1) to analyze the lahar frequency during the period of 1969–2012 on an inter-annual and intra-annual basis and to determine the link between the volume of tephra and the frequency of lahars; (2) to detail the lahar trajectory and channel evolution following the January 8th lahar; (3) to map the spatial distribution of the thickness and geomorphic effects of the lahar deposit; and (4) to determine the impacts of the lahar on the infrastructure (sabo dams and roads) and settlements in the distal area of the volcano. The Kali Putih watershed has experienced 62 lahars, which represent 22% of all lahars triggered on 17 rivers at Merapi between 2010 and 2012. The main geomorphic impacts are: (1) excessive sedimentation in valleys, settlements and agricultural areas; (2) undercutting of the river banks by as much as 50 m, accompanied by channel widening; and (3) abrupt changes in the river channel direction in the distal area (15–20 km downstream of the volcano). About 19 sabo dams were damaged, and 3 were totally destroyed. Over 307 houses were damaged, and the National Road Yogyakarta–Semarang was regularly cut (18 times during approximately 25 days). Although the sabo dams on Kali Putih were originally constructed to protect distal areas from lahar damage, they had little effect on the 2010–2012 rain-triggered lahars. The underlying design of those dams along this river is one of the main reasons for the major destruction in this sector of the volcano’s lower slope. The catch basin capacity of the sabo dam was only 1.75?×?10⁶ m³, whereas the total volume of the 2010–2011 lahars exceeded 5?×?10⁶ m³. In order to prepare for future lahars, the government has invested in significant mitigation measures, ranging from structural approaches (e.g., building new sabo dams and developing an early warning system) to non-structural approaches (e.g., contingency and preparedness planning and hazard education).

     

长白山天池火山天文峰期黄色浮岩成因研究

长白山天池火口北侧天文峰之上,一套醒目的黄色浮岩引起广泛的关注,其颜色成因问题更是讨论的热点。本文通过野外地质调查、显微形貌和地球化学分析等方法,探索了黄色浮岩的颜色成因问题,并对此次喷发活动（天文峰期喷发）有了更进一步的认识。黄色浮岩与其下部灰白色浮岩应为同一期喷发所形成,两者成分一致且特征相似。黄色浮岩初始颜色为灰白色,后期受所处环境（降水丰富）与本身气孔特征的影响,浮岩内发生了元素析出和元素沉淀的过程。首先,浮岩内Si与H₂O结合形成弱硅酸（H₂SiO₃）,而大气中CO₂与H₂O结合形成弱碳酸（H₂CO₃）,在弱酸环境下火山玻璃逐渐析出Si、K、Al、Ca和Fe等阳离子,而析出的元素易溶于水的部分被流水带走,难溶于水的Fe与Al富集并粘附在火山玻璃壁上,同时由于Fe可与H₂O络合形成黄色的Fe的水合物（Fe₂O₃·nH₂O）,而Al与H₂O络合形成凝胶状白色水合物（Al₂O₃·nH₂O）,两者混合形成了黄色胶状物粘附在火山玻璃壁上,改变了浮岩原本的灰白色,形成了黄色浮岩。因此,天文峰期浮岩的黄色是由于后期风化淋滤作用所造成,属于次生色。本研究提高了对火山喷发堆积物风化淋滤作用过程的认识,也为其他地区相似颜色变化问题的讨论提供了借鉴。

     

The 2015 eruption of Gamalama volcano (Ternate Island–Indonesia): precursor,crisis management,and community response

GeoJournal - Gamalama is an active stratovolcano on Ternate, a small volcanic island in Maluku Utara, Indonesia. Since 1510, a total of 77 eruptions have been recorded, with various impacts on the...     

火山喷发形式与挥发分含量

火山喷发是由地球深部物质发生部分熔融产生的岩浆上涌至地表所形成的一种地质现象,是地球内部能量释放的主要途径之一。有些火山喷发极为猛烈,产生的大量火山灰能够在长达几个月的时间内影响当地气候环境,甚至可以在一瞬间掩埋整座城市;而有些火山喷发时只有大量的熔岩从火山口中静静地溢出,人们甚至可以在不远处进行观赏。火山喷发具有何种程度的破坏力取决于其喷发形式,而挥发分含量是影响喷发形式的重要因素之一。本文简述了几种常见的喷发形式及其相互之间可能存在的转化关系,着重论述了挥发分含量在其中所起到的作用,同时介绍了几种可能的去气模型及常见的测量岩浆挥发分含量的方法。其中使用单斜辉石斑晶来反演大陆玄武岩原始岩浆水含量的方法预计会在未来的研究中得到普及。     

长白山天池火山千年大喷发的岩浆过程

千年大喷发是长白山天池火山最近的一次大规模爆炸式喷发活动。本文在天池火口及周边的地质调查中发现,千年大喷发存在碱流质和粗面质两套堆积物,且具有岩浆混合现象。进一步岩相学与地球化学研究,证实千年大喷发应存在先后两个喷发阶段,即碱流质喷发阶段(SiO_2,~75%)和粗面质喷发阶段(SiO_2,~65%)。同时,通过微量元素和斑晶特征等分析认为两阶段的岩浆来自于两个独立的岩浆房,岩浆房平衡温度分别为743℃和862℃,相应深度约为5km和7~9km。另外,根据条带状岩浆的混合特征,认为喷发过程中碱流质与粗面质岩浆混合发生在上升通道中,排除岩浆房内混合的可能性。最后根据喷发过程和岩浆特征,综合提出了千年大喷发的岩浆过程模型。本文对千年大喷发的喷发过程和岩浆过程取得的新认识,增进了对天池火山活动习性的理解。     

Chemistry and isotope ratios of sulfur in basalts and volcanic gases at Kilauea volcano,Hawaii

Eighteen basalts and some volcanic gases from the submarine and subaerial parts of Kilauea volcano were analyzed for the concentration and isotope ratios of sulfur. By means of a newly developed technique, sulfide and sulfate sulfur in the basalts were separately but simultaneously determined. The submarine basalt has 700 ± 100 ppm total sulfur with δ³⁴S_Σs of $\text{0.7 ± 0.1 ‰}$. The sulfate/sulfide molar ratio ranges from 0.15 to 0.56 and the fractionation factor between sulfate and sulfide is $\text{+7.5 ± 1.5‰}$. On the other hand, the concentration and δ³⁴S_Σs values of the total sulfur in the subaerial basalt are reduced to 150 ± 50 ppm and $\text{?0.8 ± 0.2‰}$, respectively. The sulfate to sulfide ratio and the fractionation factor between them are also smaller, 0.01 to 0.25 and +3.0‰, respectively. Chemical and isotopic evidence strongly suggests that sulfate and sulfide in the submarine basalt are in chemical and isotopic equilibria with each other at magmatic conditions. Their relative abundance and the isotope fractionation factors may be used to estimate the $\text{?o}{}_2$ and temperature of these basalts at the time of their extrusion onto the sea floor. The observed change in sulfur chemistry and isotopic ratios from the submarine to subaerial basalts can be interpreted as degassing of the SO₂ from basalt thereby depleting sulfate and ³⁴S in basalt.The volcanic sulfur gases, predominantly SO₂, from the 1971 and 1974 fissures in Kilauea Crater have δ³⁴S values of 0.8 to 0.9%., slightly heavier than the total sulfur in the submarine basalts and definitely heavier than the subaerial basalts, in accord with the above model. However, the δ³⁴S value of sulfur gases (largely SO₂) from Sulfur Bank is 8.0%., implying a secondary origin of the sulfur. The δ³⁴S values of native sulfur deposits at various sites of Kilauea and Mauna Loa volcanos, sulfate ions of four deep wells and hydrogen sulfide from a geothermal well along the east rift zone are also reported. The high δ³⁴S values (+5 to +6%._o) found for the hydrogen sulfide might be an indication of hot basaltseawater reaction beneath the east rift zone.     

Thermal structure of the gas-and-ash plume during eruption of Koryak volcano

High resolution thermal cameras were used in observations of gas-and-ash plumes during eruption of the Koryak volcano in March 2009. Our results provide the thermal structure of gas-and-ash flows. The structure of the eruption column consists of several individual plumes. The vertical velocity of plume rise was estimated at 5.5–7 m/s. The eruption column or plume can be conventionally divided into three parts: a highly convective region, a buoyant region, and a region of horizontal motion. The temperature of the plume is higher than that of the surrounding atmosphere by 3–5°C for the horizontal motion region and by about 20°C for the buoyant region. The velocity at the buoyant region is 5–7 m/s. For the boundary between highly convective and buoyant regions, where the plume diameter is known, the vapor mass flow and the heat capacity of the thermal jet flow can be determined from the heat balance equation. The mass flow of the overheated vapor, which has a temperature of 450°C and comprises a gas-and-ash eruption plume, was estimated to be Q = 35 kg/s. The total mass of water vapor over the period of eruption (100 days) is estimated at 3 · 10⁵ t. The total thermal energy of the eruption amounted to 10⁹ MJ.     

Decoupled crystallization and eruption histories of the rhyolite magmatic system at Tarawera volcano revealed by zircon ages and growth rates

We obtained U–Th disequilibrium age data on zircons from each of the four rhyolite eruptions that built Tarawera volcano in the last 22 ka within the Okataina Volcanic Center (OVC), caldera, New Zealand. Secondary ion mass spectrometry analyses on unpolished euhedral crystal faces that lack resorption features show that crystal growth variously terminated from near-eruption age to ~100 ka prior to eruption. Age-depth profiling of crystals reveals long periods of continuous (~34 ka) and discontinuous growth (~90 ka). Growth hiatuses of up to ~40 ka duration occur, but do not all relate to obvious resorption surfaces. Age differences up to similar magnitude are found on opposing faces of some crystals suggesting episodes of partial exposure to melts. These features are best explained by periodic, complete, or partial, sub-solidus storage and/or inclusion in larger crystal phases, followed by rapid liberation prior to eruption. This is supported by high abundances of U and Th (~500 − >2,000 ppm) in some zircons consistent with periods of high crystallinity (>70%) in the magmatic system, based on crystal/melt partitioning. Contemporaneous but contrasting rim-ward trends of these elements within crystals, even in the same lava hand sample, require synchronous growth in separate melt bodies and little connectivity within the system, but also significant crystal transport and mixing prior to eruption. Many crystals record continuity of growth through the preceding ~60 ka OVC caldera-collapse and subsequent eruptions from Tarawera. This demonstrates a decoupling between eruption triggers, such as shallow crustal extension and mafic intrusion, and the crystallization state of the OVC silicic magmatic system. The data highlights the need to distinguish between the time for accumulation of eruptible magma and the long-term magma residence time based on the age of crystals with high closure temperatures, when assessing the potential for catastrophic eruptions.     

Focal parameters of seismic sources during the 1981 and 1983 eruption at Mt. Etna volcano (Sicily,Italy)

In this study 50 seismic events, preceding and accompanying the eruptions occurring in 1981 and 1983, have been considered. Seismic moments, fault radii, stress drops and seismic energies have been calculated using Brune’s model (J Geophys Res 75:4997–5009, 1970; J Geophys Res 76:5002, 1971); site, anelastic attenuation along the propagation path, geometrical spreading and interaction with the free surface effects are taken into account. For each event we have also estimated the equivalent Wood–Anderson magnitude (MWAeq) (Scherbaum and Stoll in Bull Seism Soc Am 73:1321–1343, 1983); relations among all these source parameters have been determined. Furthermore, the hypothesis of self-similarity (Aki in J Geophys Res 72:1217–1231, 1967) is not verified for events with seismic moments <10¹² N-m: in fact the relationship between log-stress drop and log-moment is linear up to a moment of 10¹² N-m (events of 1981 eruption), while for higher moments (events of 1983 eruption) the slope of the regression line is not significantly different from zero. We suppose that such a behaviour is related to a heterogeneous medium with barriers on the faults. Finally, the main conclusion is that eruptions of 1981 and 1983 differ from one another both in eruptive and seismic aspects; analysis of seismic energies indicates an increase in Mt. Etna’s activity, confirmed by studies performed on the following lateral eruption of 1991–1993 (Patanè et al. in Bull Volcanol 47:941–952, 1995), occurring on the same structural trend.     

吉林省龙岗火山群南龙湾第四纪火山碎屑颗粒特征研究

爆炸性火山喷发形成的碎屑颗粒的粒度、分选性、表面结构和内部结构等特征与火山喷发的机制、岩浆与水作用的程度、搬运过程等有着重要的联系。本文以此为线索,研究了龙岗火山群南龙湾火山的一个剖面,以探讨其喷发类型和特征。在该剖面上采集了不同层位火山碎屑颗粒样品,然后进行显微形貌观测、粒度分析和扫描电镜形貌观测。显微镜下观测表明,射汽爆发、射汽岩浆爆发和岩浆爆发的碎屑颗粒具有不同的成分和形貌特征。粒度分析结果显示,粒度与喷发类型之间存在很好的对应关系,不同的爆发类型具有不同的分维值D范围。SEM分析可以提供有关火山喷发特征对火山碎屑颗粒的影响。本文的研究结果表明,南龙湾火山喷发为爆炸式喷发,包括早期的射汽岩浆爆发,到岩浆爆发至晚期以射汽爆发为主的射汽岩浆爆发的不同阶段,该区火山喷发的不同时期,水参与喷发的程度不同。     

天池火山千年大喷发的岩浆混合作用与喷发机制初步探讨

根据岩浆演化和地球物理深部探测,天池火山之下存在地壳和地幔双层岩浆房。地幔玄武质岩浆向地壳岩浆房的补给,保持了天池火山逾百万年持续不断的喷发活动。本文从天池火山千年大喷发浮岩中的玄武质粗安岩一粗安岩角砾和条带状岩浆的岩相学、矿物学和岩石化学研究,提出地幔的粗面玄武质岩浆向地壳岩浆房的注入,触发千年大喷发,初步探讨了天池火山千年大喷发的岩浆混合作用与喷发机制。     

Characteristics of the 2000 fissure eruption and lava flow fields at Mount Cameroon volcano,West Africa: a combined field mapping and remote sensing approach

This study focuses on the compound pahoehoe lava flow fields of the 2000 eruption on Mount Cameroon volcano, West Africa and it comprehensively documents their morphology. The 2000 eruption of Mount Cameroon took place at three different sites (sites 1, 2 and 3), on the southwest flank and near the summit that built three different lava flow fields. These lava flow fields were formed during a long‐duration (28th May–mid September) summit and flank eruption involving predominantly pahoehoe flows (sites 2 and 3) and aa flows (site 1). Field observations of flows from a total of four cross‐sections made at the proximal end, midway and at the flow front, have been supplemented with data from satellite imagery (SRTM DEM, Landsat TM and ETM+) and are used to offer some clues into their emplacement. Detailed mapping of these lava flows revealed that site 1 flows were typically channel‐fed simple aa flows that evolved as a single flow unit, while sites 2 and 3 lava flow fields were fed by master tubes within fissures producing principally tube‐fed compound pahoehoe flows. Sites 2 and 3 flows issued from ∼ 33 ephemeral vents along four NE–SW‐trending faults/fissures. Pahoehoe morphologies at sites 2 and 3 include smooth, folded and channelled lobes emplaced via a continuum of different mechanisms with the principal mechanism being inflation. The dominant structural features observed on these flow fields included: fissures/faults, vents, levees, channels, tubes and pressure ridges. Other structural features present were pahoehoe toes/lobes, breakouts and squeeze‐ups. Slabby pahoehoe resulting from slab‐crusted lava was the transitionary lava type from pahoehoe to aa observed at all the sites. Transition zones correspond to slopes of > 10°. Variations in flow morphology and textures across profiles and downstream were repetitive, suggesting a cyclical nature for the responsible processes. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

North Qorveh volcanic field,western Iran: eruption styles,petrology and geological setting

Mineralogy and Petrology - In the metamorphic Sanandaj-Sirjan Zone of western Iran, the “North Qorveh Volcanic Field” is constituted by Pleistocene scoria cones and associated deposits....     

长白山天池火山地质学研究的若干进展与灾害分析

通过以减轻火山灾害为目的的天池火山锥体顶部地区地质填图工作，发现了天池火山锥体附近不同期次火山泥石流，部分火山泥石流显示的高温定位特征指示了其与千年大喷发的成因联系。这些火山泥石流构成了严重的火山泥石流灾害，天池火山锥体近顶部大型滑坡体的发现则指示了天池火山另一种重要的灾害类型。滑坡体堆积物结构上可分为3种类型。天池火山千年大喷发时不同成分与物性的岩浆混合作用十分发育，指示了天池火山喷发前不同岩浆批的混合与共喷发机理。本文还论述了天池火山近代历史记录喷发物的分布与鉴别特征。     

望天鹅火山岩石地球化学特征及其成因

东北吉林望天鹅新生代火山岩（7．04—1．86Ma）主要由玄武粗安岩和碱性流纹岩组成。玄武粗安岩的SiO2介于49．38％-53．31％之间;K2O＋Na2O为4．27％-7．72％;∑REE为163．69&#215;10^-6-258．55&#215;10^-6,Eu异常不明显,δEu为0．72～1．17;碱性流纹岩具高SiO2（70．39％～71．49％）含量,高碱（K2O＋Na2O为9．28％～9．49％）,高稀土总量（∑REE介于309．30&#215;10^-6～465．03&#215;10^-6之间）,明显的Eu负异常,3Eu为0．52～0．71。碱性流纹岩的微量元素含量较玄武粗安岩高,且具有明显的Sr、P、Ti负异常。望天鹅火山岩的^87Sr／^86Sr比值在0．705156-0．709029之间,而^144Nd／^143Nd比值变化较小,介于0．512295～0．512602之间;放射性成因Pb同位素变化范围也较小,^206Ph／^204Pb为17．254～18．090,^207Ph／^204Pb为15．460～15．507,^208Pb／^204Ph为37．278—38．048。综合分析火山岩的主量元素、微量元素和Sr-Nd—Pb同位素特点,初步认为望天鹅火山的玄武粗安岩和碱性流纹岩具有相同的地幔源区。玄武粗安岩起源于微弱富集上地幔,在上升过程中结晶分异形成了碱性流纹岩。     

The 2011 eruption of Nabro volcano,Eritrea: perspectives on magmatic processes from melt inclusions

The 2011 eruption of Nabro volcano, Eritrea, produced one of the largest volcanic sulphur inputs to the atmosphere since the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, yet has received comparatively little scientific attention. Nabro forms part of an off-axis alignment, broadly perpendicular to the Afar Rift, and has a history of large-magnitude explosive silicic eruptions, as well as smaller more mafic ones. Here, we present and analyse extensive petrological data obtained from samples of trachybasaltic tephra erupted during the 2011 eruption to assess the pre-eruptive magma storage system and explain the large sulphur emission. We show that the eruption involved two texturally distinct batches of magma, one of which was more primitive and richer in sulphur than the other, which was higher in water (up to 2.5 wt%). Modelling of the degassing and crystallisation histories demonstrates that the more primitive magma rose rapidly from depth and experienced degassing crystallisation, while the other experienced isobaric cooling in the crust at around 5 km depth. Interaction between the two batches occurred shortly before the eruption. The eruption itself was likely triggered by recharge-induced destabilisation of vertically extensive mush zone under the volcano. This could potentially account for the large volume of sulphur released. Some of the melt inclusions are volatile undersaturated, and suggest that the original water content of the magma was around 1.3 wt%, which is relatively high for an intraplate setting, but consistent with seismic studies of the Afar plume. This eruption was smaller than some geological eruptions at Nabro, but provides important insights into the plumbing systems and dynamics of off-axis volcanoes in Afar.     

Petrology of the 1979 eruption of Soufriere volcano,St. Vincent,Lesser Antilles

Major element, trace element, and Sr isotope data are used to study the temporal variation in the chemistry of the ejecta from the 1979 eruption of Soufriere volcano, St. Vincent, and to compare the compositions of the 1979 and 1971/2 magmas. Both the 1971/2 and 1979 products were basaltic andesites almost identical in petrography. A small temporal variation in chemistry is apparent in the 1979 samples but these cannot be related to the 1971/2 lava by fractional crystallisation of phenocryst phases, and the two eruptions may therefore have sampled different batches of magma. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of the two magmas were identical within analytical error.Microprobe analyses of phenocryst phases and glasses from the 1979 ejecta are presented. Clinopyroxene phenocryst cores with very high Mg/Fe ratios indicate that the basaltic andesites are products of fractionation of magnesian parents. Such magmas are represented by lavas on St. Vincent similar to the microphyric alkali picrites found to the south in Grenada. A common origin for the basaltic andesites of both islands by fractional crystallisation of picritic magmas is suggested. Dacitic glass is abundant in the groundmass of scoria blocks from the eruption. It does not represent the liquid originally in equilibrium with the phenocryst phases, but rather this liquid modified by quench crystallisation. Published interpretations suggesting that dacitic glass compositions in tephra from eruptions of the Soufriere are evidence of mixed-magma eruptions are therefore rejected.