Relative timing of deformation and two-stage gold mineralization at the Hutti Mine, Dharwar Craton, India

Gold mineralization at Hutti is confined to a series of nine parallel, N–S to NNW–SSE trending, steeply dipping shear zones. The host rocks are amphibolites and meta-rhyolites metamorphosed at peak conditions of 660±40°C and 4±1 kbar. They are weakly foliated (S₁) and contain barren quartz extension veins. The auriferous shear zones (reefs) are typically characterized by four alteration assemblages and laminated quartz veins, which, in places, occupy the entire reef width of 2–10 m, and contain the bulk of gold mineralization. A <1.5 m wide distal chlorite-sericite (+biotite, calcite, plagioclase) alteration zone can be distinguished from a 3–5 m wide proximal biotite-plagioclase (+quartz, muscovite, calcite) alteration zone. Gold is both spatially and temporally associated with disseminated arsenopyrite and pyrite mineralization. An inner chlorite-K-feldspar (+quartz, calcite, scheelite, tourmaline, sphene, epidote, sericite) alteration halo, which rims the laminated quartz veins, is characterized by a pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, ilmenite, rutile, and gold paragenesis. The distal chlorite-sericite and proximal biotite-plagioclase alteration assemblages are developed in microlithons of the S₂–S₃ crenulation cleavage and are replaced along S₃ by the inner chlorite-K-feldspar alteration, indicating a two-stage evolution for gold mineralization. Ductile D₂ shearing, alteration, and gold mineralization formed the reefs during retrograde evolution and fluid infiltration under upper greenschist to lower amphibolite facies conditions (560±60°C, 2±1 kbar). The reefs were reactivated in the D₃ dextral strike-slip to oblique-slip environment by fault-valve behavior at lower greenschist facies conditions (ca. 300–350°C), which formed the auriferous laminated quartz veins. Later D₄ crosscutting veins and D₅ faults overprint the gold mineralization. The alteration mineralogy and the structural control of the deposit clearly points to an orogenic style of gold mineralization, which took place either during isobaric cooling or at different levels of the Archean crust. From overlaps in the tectono-metamorphic history, it is concluded that gold mineralization occurred during two tectonic events, affecting the eastern Dharwar craton in south India between ca. 2550 – 2530 Ma: (1) The assemblage of various terranes of the eastern block, and (2) a tectono-magmatic event, which caused late- to posttectonic plutonism and a thermal perturbation. It differs, however, from the pre-peak metamorphic gold mineralization at Kolar and the single-stage mineralization at Ramagiri. Notably, greenschist facies gold mineralization occurred at Hutti 35–90 million years later than in the western Dharwar craton. Editorial handling: G. Beaudoin     

Deep Crustal Electrical Signatures of Eastern Dharwar Craton, India

Wide band magnetotelluric (MT) investigations were carried out along a profile from Kavali in the east to Anantapur towards west across the Eastern Ghat Granulite Terrain (EGGT), Eastern Dhanvar Craton (EDC) and a Proterozoic Cuddapah Basin. This 300 km long profile was covered with 20 stations at an interval of 12–18 km. The MT data is subjected to robust processing, decomposition and static shift correction before deriving a 2-D model. The model shows a resistive crust (−10,000–30,000 ohm-m) to a depth of 8–10 km towards west of the Cuddapah basin. The mid crust is less resistive (about 500 ohm-m) and the lower crust with a slight increase in resistivity (about 1,500 ohm-m) in the depth range of 20–22 km. The resistivity picture to the east of the Cuddapah basin also showed a different deep crustal structure. The resistivity of upper crust is about 5,000 ohm-m and about 200 ohm-m for mid and lower crust. The sediment resistivity of Cuddapah basin is of the order of 15–20 ohm-m. MT model has shown good correlation with results from other geophysical studies like deep seismic sounding (DSS), gravity and magnetics. The results indicate that the lower crustal layers are of intermediate type showing hydrous composition in Eastern Dhanvar Craton.     

Dissolution channels in quartz and the role of pressure changes in gold and sulfide deposition in the Archean, greenstone-hosted, Hutti gold deposit, Karnataka, India

The pressure, temperature and composition of ore fluids that resulted in gold deposition in the Archean, greenstone-hosted Hutti deposit have been studied using fluid inclusions and the compositions of arsenopyrite and chlorite. Five types of fluids have been identified in fluid inclusions in quartz veins associated with mineralization. They are (1) monophase CO ₂-rich fluid; (2) low-salinity (0 to 14 wt% NaCl equivalent) and high-salinity (16 to 23 wt% NaCl equiv.) aqueous fluids; (3) high-salinity (28 to 40 wt% NaCl equiv.), polyphase aqueous fluids; (4) CO ₂–H ₂O–NaCl fluids of low salinity (0–8 wt% NaCl equiv.); and (5) a few carbonic inclusions with halite±nahcolite. The diversity of entrapped fluid composition is explained in terms of changes in fluid pressure and temperature which affect a more or less uniform supply of primary low-salinity CO ₂–H ₂O–NaCl fluid to the shear zone. Geothermobarometric studies indicate that during mineralization temperature ranged between 360 and 240 °C, and fluid pressure between 3,600 and 1,600 bar. The data are interpreted in terms of the cyclic fault-valve mechanism for active shear zones. Deposition of gold and sulfides has been studied on the basis of constraints from the composition of wall-rock chlorite, ore-mineral assemblages, and textural features. Tubular channels, 20 to 100 µm wide and up to 500 µm long that arise from fractures and C-planes in sheared quartz veins are reported for the first time. The channels have pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, pyrite and gold at their distal ends, with calcite filling up the remaining part. These channels form in response to increases in T and P, by dissolution of quartz grains, guided by dislocations in them. At the P– T conditions of interest, gold and sulfide deposition takes place in the shears and fractures of quartz veins from CO ₂–H ₂O–NaCl ore fluid of low salinity and pH due to changes in phase compositions that occur during the process of shear failure of the enclosing rocks. In the wall rock where pH is buffered, gold deposition takes place from the predominant Au(HS) ₂ ^- species with progressive sulfide deposition and decrease in SS, from 0.01 to 0.001 mol/kg as T falls from 360 to 240 °C.     

新疆望峰金矿床流体包裹体地球化学及矿床成因类型

西天山东缘的望峰金矿床受胜利达坂韧性剪切带的控制,成矿过程包括早、中、晚3个阶段,自然金和矿石矿物主要形成于中阶段。岩相学、显微测温及单个包裹体成分激光拉曼光谱研究表明,望峰金矿床石英中的流体包裹体有CO₂-H₂O型、纯CO₂型、NaCl-H₂O溶液型和含子晶多相等4种类型。早阶段石英中原生包裹体主要是CO₂-H₂O型,其盐度1.62%~8.03% NaCl eqv.,流体密度0.73~0.89g/cm³,均一温度为250~390℃,气相成分为CO₂。中阶段石英中的原生包裹体包括了所有4种类型,其CO₂-H₂O型和NaCl-H₂O溶液型包裹体的均一温度分别为210~340℃和230~300℃,显示了流体沸腾现象的存在。CO₂-H₂O型包裹体的盐度0.83%~9.59% NaCl eqv.,密度0.77~0.95g/cm³,气相成分为CO₂±CH₄±N₂。晚阶段石英只发育水溶液包裹体,具有较低的盐度（0.35%~3.87% NaCl eqv.）和均一温度（120~214℃）。根据CO₂-H₂O型包裹体估算早、中阶段流体包裹体捕获压力分别为110~300PMa和90~250MPa,成矿深度为9~11km。总体而言,望峰金矿床由低盐度、低密度、富CO₂的变质流体系统形成,流体减压沸腾导致矿质沉淀,属于中深带的造山型金矿系统。     

Multi-stage crustal growth and Neoarchean geodynamics in the Eastern Dharwar Craton,southern India

The Dharwar Craton is a composite Archean cratonic collage that preserves important records of crustal evolution on the early Earth. Here we present results from a multidisciplinary study involving field investigations, petrology, zircon SHRIMP U–Pb geochronology with in-situ Hf isotope analyses, and whole-rock geochemistry, including Nd isotope data on migmatitic TTG (tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite) gneisses, dark grey banded gneisses, calc-alkaline and anatectic granitoids, together with synplutonic mafic dykes along a wide Northwest – Southeast corridor forming a wide time window in the Central and Eastern blocks of the Dharwar Craton. The dark grey banded gneisses are transitional between TTGs and calc-alkaline granitoids, and are referred to as ‘transitional TTGs’, whereas the calc-alkaline granitoids show sanukitoid affinity. Our zircon U–Pb data, together with published results, reveal four major periods of crustal growth (ca. 3360-3200 Ma, 3000-2960 Ma, 2700-2600 Ma and 2570-2520 Ma) in this region. The first two periods correspond to TTG generation and accretion that is confined to the western part of the corridor, whereas widespread 2670-2600 Ma transitional TTG, together with a major outburst of 2570–2520 Ma juvenile calc-alkaline magmatism of sanukitoid affinity contributed to peak continental growth. The transitional TTGs were preceded by greenstone volcanism between 2746 Ma and 2700 Ma, whereas the calc-alkaline magmatism was contemporaneous with 2570–2545 Ma felsic volcanism. The terminal stage of all four major accretion events was marked by thermal events reflected by amphibolite to granulite facies metamorphism at ca. 3200 Ma, 2960 Ma, 2620 Ma and 2520 Ma. Elemental ratios [(La/Yb)_N, Sr/Y, Nb/Ta, Hf/Sm)] and Hf-Nd isotope data suggest that the magmatic protoliths of the TTGs emplaced at different time periods formed by melting of thickened oceanic arc crust at different depths with plagioclase + amphibole ± garnet + titanite/ilmenite in the source residue, whereas the elemental (Ba–Sr, [(La/Yb)_N, Sr/Y, Nb/Ta, Hf/Sm)] and Hf-Nd isotope data [εHf_(T) = −0.67 to 5.61; εNd_(T) = 0.52 to 4.23; ] of the transitional TTGs suggest that their protoliths formed by melting of composite sources involving mantle and overlying arc crust with amphibole + garnet + clinopyroxene ± plagioclase + ilmenite in the residue. The highly incompatible and compatible element contents (REE, K–Ba–Sr, Mg, Ni, Cr), together with Hf and Nd isotope data [εHf_(T) = 4.5 to −3.2; εNd_(T) = 1.93 to −1.26; ], of the sanukitoids and synplutonic dykes suggest their derivation from enriched mantle reservoirs with minor crustal contamination. Field, elemental and isotope data [εHf_(T) = −4.3 to −15.0; εNd_(T) = −0.5 to −7.0] of the anatectic granites suggest their derivation through reworking of ancient as well as newly formed juvenile crust. Secular increase in incompatible as well as compatible element contents in the transitional TTGs to sanukitoids imply progressive enrichment of Neoarchean mantle reservoirs, possibly through melting of continent-derived detritus in a subduction zone setting, resulting in the establishment of a sizable continental mass by 2700 Ma, which in turn is linked to the evolving Earth. The Neoarchean geodynamic evolution is attributed to westward convergence of hot oceanic lithosphere, with continued convergence resulted in the assembly of micro-blocks, with eventual slab break-off leading to asthenosphere upwelling caused extensive mantle melting and hot juvenile magma additions to the crust. This led to lateral flow of hot ductile crust and 3D mass distribution and formation of an orogenic plateaux with subdued topography, as indicated by strain fabric data and strong seismic reflectivity along an E-W crustal profile in the Central and Eastern blocks of the Dharwar Craton.     

Isotope and fluid inclusion geochemistry and genesis of the Qiangma gold deposit,Xiaoqinling gold field,Qinling Orogen,China

The Qiangma gold deposit is hosted in the > 1.9 Ga Taihua Supergroup metamorphic rocks in the Xiaoqinling terrane, Qinling Orogen, on the southern margin of the North China Craton. The mineralization can be divided as follows: quartz-pyrite veins early, quartz-polymetallic sulfide veinlets middle, and carbonate-quartz veinlets late stages, with gold being mainly introduced in the middle stage. Three types of fluid inclusions were identified based on petrography and laser Raman spectroscopy, i.e., pure carbonic, carbonic-aqueous (CO₂–H₂O) and aqueous inclusions.The early-stage quartz contains pure carbonic and CO₂–H₂O inclusions with salinities up to 12.7 wt.% NaCl equiv., bulk densities of 0.67 to 0.86 g/cm³, and homogenization temperatures of 280−365 °C. The early-stage is related to H₂O–CO₂ ± N₂ ± CH₄ fluids with isotopic signatures consistent with a metamorphic origin (δ¹⁸O_water = 3.1 to 5.2‰, δD = − 37 to − 73‰). The middle-stage quartz contains all three types of fluid inclusions, of which the CO₂–H₂O and aqueous inclusions yield homogenization temperatures of 249−346 °C and 230−345 °C, respectively. The CO₂–H₂O inclusions have salinities up to 10.9 wt.% NaCl equiv. and bulk densities of 0.70 to 0.98 g/cm³, with vapor bubbles composed of CO₂ and N₂. The isotopic ratios (δ¹⁸O_water = 2.2 to 3.6‰, δD = − 47 to − 79‰) suggest that the middle-stage fluids were mixed by metamorphic and meteoric fluids. In the late-stage quartz only the aqueous inclusions are observed, which have low salinities (0.9−9.9 wt.% NaCl equiv.) and low homogenization temperatures (145−223 °C). The isotopic composition (δ¹⁸O_water = − 1.9 to 0.5‰, δD = − 55 to − 66‰) indicates the late-stage fluids were mainly meteoric water.Trapping pressures estimated from CO₂–H₂O inclusions are 100−285 MPa for the middle stage, suggesting that gold mineralization mainly occurred at depths of 10 km. Fluid boiling and mixing caused rapid precipitation of sulfides and native Au. Through boiling and inflow of meteoric water, the ore-forming fluid system evolved from CO₂-rich to CO₂-poor in composition, and from metamorphic to meteoric, as indicated by decreasing δ¹⁸O_water values from early to late. The carbon, sulfur and lead isotope compositions suggest the hostrocks within the Taihua Supergroup to be a significant source of ore metals. Integrating the data obtained from the studies including regional geology, ore geology, and fluid inclusion and C–H–O–S–Pb isotope geochemistry, we conclude that the Qiangma gold deposit was an orogenic-type system formed in the tectonic transition from compression to extension during the Jurassic−Early Cretaceous continental collision between the North China and Yangtze cratons.     

P–T conditions of mineralization in the Jonnagiri granitoid-hosted gold deposit, eastern Dharwar Craton, southern India: Constraints from fluid inclusions and chlorite thermometry

Gold mineralization at Jonnagiri, Dharwar Craton, southern India, is hosted in laminated quartz veins within sheared granodiorite that occur with other rock units, typical of Archean greenstone–granite ensembles. The proximal alteration assemblage comprises of muscovite, plagioclase, and chlorite with minor biotite (and carbonate), which is distinctive of low- to mid-greenschist facies. The laminated quartz veins that constitute the inner alteration zone, contain muscovite, chlorite, albite and calcite. Using various calibrations, chlorite compositions in the inner and proximal zones yielded comparable temperature ranges of 263 to 323 °C and 268 to 324 °C, respectively. Gold occurs in the laminated quartz veins both as free-milling native metal and enclosed within sulfides. Fluid inclusion microthermometry and Raman spectroscopy in quartz veins within the sheared granodiorite in the proximal zone and laminated auriferous quartz veins in inner zone reveal the existence of a metamorphogenic aqueous–gaseous (H₂O–CO₂–CH₄ + salt) fluid that underwent phase separation and gave rise to gaseous (CO₂–CH₄), low saline (~ 5 wt.% NaCl equiv.) aqueous fluids. Quartz veins within the mylonitized granodiorites and the laminated veins show broad similarity in fluid compositions and P–T regime. Although the estimated P–T range (1.39 to 2.57 kbar at 263 to 323 °C) compare well with the published P–T values of other orogenic gold deposits in general, considerable pressure fluctuation characterize gold mineralization at Jonnagiri. Factors such as fluid phase separation and fluid–rock interaction, along with a decrease in f(O₂), were collectively responsible for gold precipitation, from an initial low-saline metamorphogenic fluid. Comparison of the Jonnagiri ore fluid with other lode gold deposits in the Dharwar Craton and major granitoid-hosted gold deposits in Australia and Canada confirms that fluids of low saline aqueous–carbonic composition with metamorphic parentage played the most dominant role in the formation of the Archean lode gold systems.     

Geology, geochemistry and genesis of BIF of Kushtagi schist belt, Archaean Dharwar Craton, India

The Banded Iron-Formation (BIF) of the Kushtagi schist belt, Dharwar Craton is interbedded with metavolcanics. The oxide fades cherty (Al₂O₃ < 2%) and shaley (Al₂O₃ > 2%) BIFs show large-scale variations in their major and trace elements abundance. Cherty Banded Iron-Formation (CBIF) is depleted in Al₂O₃, TiO₂, Zr, Hf and other trace elements like Cr, Ni, Co, Rb, Sr, V, Y and REE in comparison to Shaley Banded Iron-Formation (SBIF). Depleted REE, positive Eu anomalies and the flat to HREE-enriched pattern of CBIF indicate that Fe and SiO₂ for these BIFs were added to ambient ocean water by hydrothermal solutions at the AMOR vent sites. It is inferred that the higher amount of hydrothermal fluid flux with a higher exit temperature provided enormous quantities of iron and silica. Fine-grained sedimentation in the basin gave rise to the observed variability in the composition of BIF. During transgression a wave base was raised up, consequently deposition of CBIF became possible, whereas, during the regressive stage, these chemical sediments were buried by and/or mixed with the terrigenous sediments resulting in deposition of SBIF and interbedded shales. Volcaniclastic activity within the basin appears to have contributed significantly to the composition of some SBIF and shales. The hydrothermal exhalative hypothesis combined with the Archaean miniplate model explains most of the chemical features of the BIFs of greenstone belts.     

Synplutonic mafic dykes from late Archaean granitoids in the Eastern Dharwar Craton,southern India

We present a first overview of the synplutonic mafic dykes (mafic injections) from the 2.56–2.52 Ga calcalkaline to potassic plutons in the Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC). The host plutons comprise voluminous intrusive facies (dark grey clinopyroxene-amphibole rich monzodiorite and quartz monzonite, pinkish grey porphyritic monzogranite and grey granodiorite) located in the central part of individual pluton, whilst subordinate anatectic facies (light grey and pink granite) confined to the periphery. The enclaves found in the plutons include highly angular screens of xenoliths of the basement, rounded to pillowed mafic magmatic enclaves (MME) and most spectacular synplutonic mafic dykes. The similar textures of MME and adjoining synplutonic mafic dykes together with their spatial association and occasional transition of MME to dismembered synplutonic mafic dykes imply a genetic link between them. The synplutonic dykes occur in varying dimension ranging from a few centimeter width upto 200 meters width and are generally dismembered or disrupted and rarely continuous. Necking of dyke along its length and back veining of more leucocratic variant of the host is common feature. They show lobate as well as sharp contacts with chilled margins suggesting their injection during different stages of crystallization of host plutons in magma chamber. Local interaction, mixing and mingling processes are documented in all the studied crustal corridors in the EDC. The observed mixing, mingling, partial hybridization, MME and emplacement of synplutonic mafic dykes can be explained by four stage processes: (1) Mafic magma injected during very early stage of crystallization of host felsic magma, mixing of mafic and felsic host magma results in hybridization with occasional MME; (2) Mafic magma introduced slightly later, the viscosities of two magmas may be different and permit only mingling where by each component retain their identity; (3) When mafic magma injected into crystallizing granitic host magma with significant crystal content, the mafic magma is channeled into early fractures and form dismembered synplutonic mafic dykes and (4) Mafic injections enter into largely crystallized (>80% crystals) granitic host results in continuous dykes with sharp contacts. The origin of mafic magmas may be related to development of fractures to mantle depth during crystallization of host magmas which results in the decompression melting of mantle source. The resultant hot mafic melts with low viscosity rise rapidly into the crystallizing host magma chamber where they interact depending upon the crystallinity and viscosity of the host. These hot mafic injections locally cause reversal of crystallization of the felsic host and induce melting and resultant melts in turn penetrate the crystallizing mafic body as back veining. Field chronology indicates injection of mafic magmas is synchronous with emplacement of anatectic melts and slightly predates the 2.5 Ga metamorphic event which affected the whole Archaean crust. The injection of mafic magmas into the crystallizing host plutons forms the terminal Archaean magmatic event and spatially associated with reworking and cratonization of Archaean crust in the EDC.     

Petrology and geochemistry of late archaean granitoids in the northern part of Eastern Dharwar Craton,Southern India: Implications for transitional geodynamic setting

The results of field, petrographic and geochemical work of the granitoids of Hutti-Gurgunta area in the northern part of Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) is presented in this paper. This crustal section comprises polyphase banded to foliated TTG gneisses, middle amphibolite facies Gurgunta schist belt and upper greenschist facies Hutti schist belt and abundant granite plutons. The focus of the present study is mainly on basement TTG gneisses and a granite pluton (∼ 240 sq km areal extent), to discuss crustal accretion processes including changing petrogenetic mechanism and geodynamic setting. The TTGs contain quartz, plagioclase, lesser K-feldspar and hornblende with minor biotite while the granite contain quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar and hornblende. Late stage alteration (chloritisation, sericitisation and epidotisation) is wide spread in the entire area. A huge synplutonic mafic body which is dioritic to meladioritic in composition injects the granite and displays all stages of progressive mixing and hybridization. The studied TTGs and granite show distinct major and trace element patterns. The TTGs are characterized by higher SiO₂, high Al₂O₃, and Na₂O, low TiO₂, Mg#, CaO, K₂O and LILE, and HFS elements compared to granite. TTGs define strong trondhjemite trend whilst granite shows calc-alkaline trend. However, both TTGs and granite show characteristics of Phanerozoic high-silica adakites. The granite also shows characteristics of transitional TTGs in its high LILE, and progressive increase in K₂O with differentiation. Both TTGs and granite define linear to sub-linear trends on variation diagrams. The TTGs show moderate total REE contents with fractionated REE patterns (La/Yb_N =17.73–61.73) and slight positive or without any significant Eu anomaly implying little amount of amphibole or plagioclase in residual liquid. On the other hand, the granite displays poor to moderate fractionation of REE patterns (La/Yb_N = 9.06–67.21) without any significant Eu anomaly. The TTGs have been interpreted to be produced by low-K basaltic slab melting at shallow depth, whereas the granite pluton has been formed by slab melting at depth and these melts interacted with peridotite mantle wedge. Such changing petrogenetic mechanisms and geodynamic conditions explain increase in the contents of MgO, CaO, Ni and Cr from 2700 Ma to 2500 Ma granitoids in the EDC.     

Continental lithospheric evolution: Constraints from the geochemistry of felsic volcanic rocks in the Dharwar Craton,India

Felsic magmatism associated with ocean–ocean and ocean–continent subduction processes provide important evidence for distinct episodes of crust-generation and continental lithospheric evolution. Rhyolites constitute an integral component of the tholeiitic to calc-alkaline basalt–andesite–dacite–rhyolite (BADR) association and contribute to crustal growth processes at convergent plate margins. The evolution of the Dharwar Craton of southern peninsular India during Meso- to Neoarchean times was marked by extensive development of greenstone belts. These granite-greenstone terranes have distinct volcano-sedimentary associations consistent with their geodynamic setting. The present study deals with geochemistry of rhyolites from the Chitradurga-Shimoga greenstone belts of western (WDC) and the Gadwal-Kadiri greenstone belts of eastern (EDC) sectors of Dharwar Craton to compare and evaluate their petrogenesis and geodynamic setting and their control on the continental lithospheric evolution of the Dharwar Craton. At a similar range of SiO₂, Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃, the rhyolites of WDC are more potassic, whereas the EDC rhyolites are more sodic and less magnesian with slight increase in TiO₂. Minor increase in MgO content of WDC rhyolites reflects their ferromagnesian trace elements which are comparatively lower in the rhyolites of EDC. The relative enrichment in LILE (K, Rb) and depletion in HFSE (Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf) marked by negative Nb–Ta, Zr–Hf and Ti anomalies endorse the convergent margin processes for the generation of rhyolites of both the sectors of Dharwar Craton. The high silica potassic rhyolites of Shimoga and Chitradurga greenstone belts of WDC showing prominent negative Eu and Ti anomalies, flat HREE patterns correspond to Type 3 rhyolites and clearly point towards their generation and emplacement in an active continental margin environment. The geochemical characteristics of Gadwal and Kadiri rhyolites from eastern Dharwar Craton marked by aluminous compositions with low and fractionated HREE patterns and minor negative Eu anomalies are in conformity with Type 1 rhyolites and suggest that they were erupted in an intraoceanic island arc system. The overall geochemical systematics of the rhyolites from both the sectors of Dharwar Craton suggest a change in the geodynamic conditions from intraoceanic island arc of eastern Dharwar Craton and an active continental margin of western Dharwar marked by ocean–ocean subduction and migration of oceanic arc towards a continent followed by arc-continent collision that contributed for the evolution of continental lithosphere in the Dharwar Craton.     

Uniformity in sulfur isotope composition in the orogenic gold deposits from the Dharwar Craton,southern India

The sulfur isotope composition of sulfides (mainly pyrite and arsenopyrite) from gold deposits/prospects of the Dharwar Craton such as Hutti, Hira-Buddini, Uti, Kolar (Chigargunta), Ajjanahalli, and Jonnagiri has a narrow range (δ³⁴S = +1.1 to +7.1‰). Such craton-scale uniformity of the above gold camps is noteworthy, in spite of the wide diversity in host rock compositions and their metamorphic conditions, and suggests a magmatic or average crustal source of sulfur for all deposits studied. In addition, our study points towards gold precipitation from reduced ore fluids, with near-homogeneous sulfur isotope compositions.     

淘金冲金矿成矿流体地球化学和矿床成因研究

包裹体地球化学和氢氧同位素研究结果表明，淘金冲金矿床成矿溶液为中低温，中压，弱碱性和还原性的Ｃａ－Ｍｇ－Ｃ－Ｓ体系，成矿液早期以变质水为主，中晚期则以建造水为主（大气降水来源），明显具混合成因特点，其矿成因类型属受地下水改造成因的层控金矿或特征的“江南型”金矿。     

安徽东溪浅成低温热液型金矿床成矿流体特征和形成时代——流体包裹体和赋矿安山岩U-Pb年代学约束

安徽东溪金矿床位于桐柏-大别造山带北淮阳构造带的中生代晓天火山盆地中,是桐柏-大别成矿带具有代表性的浅成低温热液金矿床。金矿体以含金方解石脉和方解石-石英脉形式产出,受NW向断裂控制,赋矿围岩为毛坦厂组安山质火山岩。该矿床热液成矿过程由早到晚可分为粗晶方解石阶段和方解石-石英阶段。早、晚阶段方解石中流体包裹体十分发育,主要类型有纯液相、纯气相和富液二相流体包裹体。早阶段流体包裹体均一温度范围为128~172℃,冰点温度介于-0.7~+23.4℃之间,盐度为0.35%~0.92%;晚阶段流体包裹体均一温度范围为105~160℃,冰点温度介于-0.5~+9.1℃之间,盐度为0.18%~0.52%。成矿流体从早阶段演化到晚阶段,温度和盐度具有小幅度的降低趋势。岩浆热液和加热循环的大气降水的混合可能是引起金属元素富集、沉淀的主要机制,该矿床是地表浅部热液对流系统的产物。LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb同位素研究表明,赋矿安山岩的锆石~(206)Pb/~(238)U加权平均年龄为126.7±1.4Ma(1σ,MSWD=0.95),代表了其火山作用时限。结合矿床地质特征认为,东溪金矿床成矿时间可能与安山岩喷发时限基本一致。该矿床形成于早白垩世陆壳强烈伸展和岩石圈地幔上涌的动力学背景。     

甘肃阳山金矿流体包裹体地球化学和矿床成因类型

西秦岭造山带内的甘肃阳山金矿是我国最新发现的规模最大的金矿床。矿床受EW韧脆性剪切带控制,赋矿围岩为泥盆系碳质碳酸盐-千枚岩-板岩和侵入其中的花岗斑岩脉。流体成矿过程包括：形成石英-绢云母-黄铁矿组合的早阶段,形成石英-黄铁矿-毒砂和石英-毒砂-黄铁矿以及石英-碳酸盐-辉锑矿-自然金组合的主戍矿阶段,形成碳酸盐-石英网脉的晚阶段。早阶段流体包裹体以含CO2包裹体为主,CO2含量为7．3％-21．5mol％,均一温度集中于270℃～300℃,盐度〈3wt．％NaCleqv;主阶段发育纯CO2包裹体、水溶液包裹体和少量含CO2包裹体,均一温度集中于210℃～270℃,盐度集中在〈2wt,％NaCleqv和3～5wt,％NaCleqv两个范围;晚阶段只发育水溶液包裹体,均一温度集中在160℃-210℃,盐度〈3wt．％NaCleqv。主阶段流体包裹体类型的多样性、相似的均一温度和流体盐度的双峰特征均指示流体沸腾现象的存在,其流体包裹体捕获温度为210℃～375℃,压力为85～222MPa;赋矿断层的阀门式活动导致主阶段流体系统交替于静岩和静水压力之间,成矿深度为8．5km左右,成矿流体系统发育在早侏罗世大陆碰撞造山过程。矿床地质特征类似于卡林型金矿,但赋存于蚀变花岗斑岩中矿体既非造山型,也不同于卡林型,成矿流体具造山型矿床特征。因此,阳山金矿可能代表一种新的金矿类型,建议称为“阳山型金矿”。     

REE geochemistry of ore zones in the archean auriferous schist belts of the eastern Dharwar Craton, south India

The eastern Dharwar Craton of southern India includes at least three ∼ 2700Ma supracrustal belts (schist belts) which have mesothermal, quartz-carbonate vein gold mineralization emplaced within the sheared metabasalts. In the Hutti and the Kolar schist belts, the host rocks are amphibolites and the ore veins have been flanked by only a thin zone of biotitic alteration; in the Ramagiri belt, however, the host rocks to the veins have been affected by more extensive but lower temperature alteration by fluids. The rare earth element (REE) geochemistry of the host metabasalts, alteration zones, ore veins and the bulk sulfides separated from the ore veins and the alteration zones suggest that

Archean turbidite hosted orogenic gold mineralization in the Gadag greenstone belt,Western Dharwar Craton,Peninsular India

Turbidite hosted orogenic gold mineralization in the Archean Gadag greenstone belt of the Western Dharwar Craton, forms a major auriferous zone (Central Auriferous Zone) extending over a strike length of about 12 km in the Gadag duplex. The turbidite sequence comprises thick inter-bedded, medium to coarse grained lithic graywacke and thin laminated layers of fine grained carbonaceous phyllite. Gold bearing quartz veins impregnate preferentially along the en-echelon shear planes, fractures and schistosity planes. Auriferous quartz veins are enveloped by the altered wall rocks.Mineralogy of the auriferous zone is dominated by gangue minerals like quartz, ankerite, chlorite, sericite and carbonaceous matter, with subordinate plagioclase. Monazite and xenotime are the important accessory minerals. Arsenopyrite and pyrite are the major sulfide minerals, but pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena and scheelite are also present. Gold in native state occurs within quartz, silicates and arsenopyrite.Notable distinctions in mineral assemblage, texture and in chemical compositions of altered wall rocks compared to the precursor host rock in the study area implies that the metasomatism and wall rock alterations are the results of pervasive infiltration and intense interaction between hydrothermal fluids and the surrounding host rocks over a prolonged period.Sulfides, carbonates, carbonaceous matter, K₂O, MgO, CaO, Cr, Ni, Cu, Pb, Zn, As and higher values of gold (0.98–4.72 ppm) are added into the altered wall rocks, immediately enveloping the auriferous quartz vein bodies. The chondrite normalized REE pattern of altered wall rocks exhibits enriched LREE (La_N/Yb_N = av. 9.54), with prominent negative Eu anomaly. The observed variation in geochemical characteristics and mineral assemblages in the alteration zones indicates differential response of the host rock and intensity of alteration depending on the composition of host rocks and hydrothermal fluids.The auriferous hydrothermal fluids were of low salinity (2.0 to 6.6 wt.% NaCl), dominated by CO₂–H₂O (about 30 mol% CO₂) with moderate densities (0.7 to 1.04 g/cm³), and gold deposition occurred over a wide temperature range between 175 °C and 325 °C. Gold deposition was influenced by fluid mixing, phase separation and redox reactions. Mixing between CO₂–H₂O fluids and more reduced fluids, which evolved during fluid reaction with adjacent carbonaceous wall rocks, was the key factor causing gold deposition.The formation of the Gadag duplex, deformation, folds and reverse strike slip faults (discontinuities) was caused by the compression associated with subduction related tectonic processes. During the initial period of intrusive magmatism (2,555 ± 6 Ma), regional metamorphism occurred in the entire greenstone belt, while during later period, hydrothermal fluids responsible for gold mineralization probably were derived from metamorphic processes as well as from intrusive granites. Such fluids channeled through the thrust in host turbidite sequence carrying dissolved gold, associated metals and sulfur, ultimately were precipitated in a reducing environment in the splays to the thrust in the Gadag duplex at about 2,522 ± 6 Ma, resulting in retrograde alteration assemblages.     

Evolution of Hutti-Maski greenstone belt of the Eastern Dharwar Craton: Evidence for metamorphic and hydrothermal phases from the Hira-Buddini deposit,Raichur district,Karnataka, India

The Hira-Buddini gold deposit is located along the steeply dipping ENE trending sheared contact of felsic and mafic rocks of strike length of about 600 m with mylonitic foliation parallel to the S1 schistosity in amphibolites. Second-generation open folds with axial planes (S2) marked by fractures that are often filled by later calcite veins are observed in surface and underground exposures. Garnetiferous amphibolites occur in patches on the footwall side of the shear in the western part of the deposit. This rock shows garnet porphyroblasts, coarse second-generation hornblende and large grains of biotite that grow over an early S1 fabric which is made up of early hornblende, plagioclase, ilmenite and retrograde first-generation chlorite. Second-generation hornblende and biotite grains make high angles to S1 schistosity and are sub-parallel to S2. Late hydrothermal alteration is marked by an albite-epidote-chlorite-zoisite assemblage. Geothermometric estimates based on garnet-biotite, and garnet-hornblende pairs, as well as Ti in biotite, show that temperatures during D2 deformation that led to the growth of the porphyroblasts were \(530{\pm }20^{\circ }\hbox {C}\). The fabric and mineralogy of the rock indicate that porphyroblastic growth of garnet, hornblende and biotite was preceded and succeeded by stages of hydrothermal alteration. Primary gold mineralization is inferred to be associated with the early stage of hydrothermal ingress.     

Petrography and Geochemistry of New Finding Alkaline Lamprophyre Dyke in Eastern Margin of the Eastern Dharwar Craton,Near Khammam,Telangana, India

正The various parts of Cudappah Igneous Provice(CIP)/Prakasham Alkaline Province(PAP)of the Eastern Dharwar Craton(EDC),southern India is known for the occurrence of lamprophyre.Present paper reports a     

Precambrian mafic magmatism in the Western Dharwar Craton,southern India

Mafic rocks of Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) belong to two greenstone cycles of Sargur Group (3.1–3.3 Ga) and Dharwar Supergroup (2.6–2.8 Ga), belonging to different depositional environments. Proterozoic mafic dyke swarms (2.4, 2.0–2.2 and 1.6 Ga) constitute the third important cycle. Mafic rocks of Sargur Group mainly constitute a komatiitic-tholeiite suite, closely associated with layered basic-ultrabasic complexes. They form linear ultramaficmafic belts, and scattered enclaves associated with orthoquartzite-carbonate-pelite-BIF suite. Since the country rocks of Peninsular Gneiss intrude these rocks and dismember them, stratigraphy of Sargur Group is largely conceptual and its tectonic environment speculative. It is believed that the Sargur tholeiites are not fractionated from komatiites, but might have been generated and evolved from a similar mantle source at shallower depths. The layered basic-ultrabasic complexes are believed to be products of fractionation from tholeiitic parent magma. The Dharwar mafic rocks are essentially a bimodal basalt-rhyolite association that is dominated by Fe-rich and normal tholeiites. Calc-alkaline basalts and andesites are nearly absent, but reference to their presence in literature pertains mainly to carbonated, spilitized and altered tholeiitic suites. Geochemical discrimination diagrams of Dharwar lavas favour island arc settings that include fore-, intra- and back-arcs. The Dharwar mafic rocks are possibly derived by partial melting of a lherzolite mantle source and involved in fractionation of olivine and pyroxene followed by plagioclase. Distinctive differences in the petrography and geochemistry of mafic rocks across regional unconformities between Sargur Group and Dharwar Supergroup provide clinching evidences in favour of distinguishing two greenstone cycles in the craton. This has also negated the earlier preliminary attempts to lump together all mafic volcanics into a single contemporaneous suite, leading to erroneous interpretations. After giving allowances for differences in depositional and tectonic settings, the chemical distinction between Sargur and Dharwar mafic suites throws light on secular variations and crustal evolution. Proterozoic mafic dyke swarms of three major periods (2.4, 2.0–2.2 and 1.6 Ga) occur around Tiptur and Hunsur. The dykes also conform to the regional metamorphic gradient, with greenschist facies in the north and granulite facies in the south, resulting from the tilt of the craton towards north, exposing progressively deeper crustal levels towards the south. The low-grade terrain in the north does not have recognizable swarms, but the Tiptur swarm consists essentially of amphibolites and Hunsur swarm mainly of basic granulites, all of them preserving cross-cutting relations with host rocks, chilled margins and relict igneous textures. There are also younger dolerite dykes scattered throughout the craton that are unaffected by this metamorphic zonation. Large-scale geochemical, geochronological and palaeomagnetic data acquisition through state-of-the-art instrumentation is urgently needed in the Dharwar craton to catch up with contemporary advancements in the classical greenstone terrains of the world.