Morphodynamics of the barrier-inlet system, west-central Florida

The barrier-inlet system along the Gulf Coast of peninsular Florida has one of the most diverse morphologies of any barrier system in the world. The delicate balance between tidal- and wave-generated processes on this low-energy coast permits only slight changes in either of these processes to result in significant and rapidly developing morphologic responses. Some of these responses are the result of natural phenomena such as hurricanes opening tidal inlets, closure of inlets due to longshore transport of sediment, and changes in the availability of sediment. Tidal prism is the primary factor in controlling inlet morphology and is greatly influenced by anthropogenic activities in the backbarrier area. Human activity has also modified the coast in many ways over the past several decades, beginning with the construction of the first causeways in the 1920s. The various modifications by development have resulted in important morphodynamic changes in the barrier-inlet system. These include hardening the coast on the beach and at inlets, dredging and filling in backbarrier environments, and construction of fill-type causeways connecting the islands to the mainland. Construction of seawalls and jetties has inhibited normal coastal processes. Examples include the downdrift erosion at Blind Pass and Big Sarasota Pass. Construction of fill-type causeways between the barriers and the mainland has created artificial tidal divides that reduce the tidal prism at some inlets, thereby resulting in instability or closure such as Blind Pass and Dunedin Pass. This is further exacerbated by dredge and fill construction that reduces tidal prism by reducing the area of open water in the backbarrier. Dredging of the Intracoastal Waterway also results in a negative impact on selected inlets by channeling tidal flux away from some inlets. Impacts of these changes inhibit the barrier/inlet environments from responding to open coast processes.     

Morphological response of tidal basins to human interventions

This study focuses on the prediction of the long-term morphological evolution of tidal basins due to human interventions. New analytical results have been derived for an existing model [ASMITA, Aggregated Scale Morphological Interaction between a Tidal inlet and the Adjacent coast; Stive, M.J.F., Capobianco, M., Wang, Z.B., Ruol, P., Buijsman, M.C., 1998. Morphodynamics of a Tidal Lagoon and adjacent Coast. 8th International Biennial Conference on Physics of Estuaries and Coastal Seas, The Hague, September 1996, 397–407.]. Through linearisation of the model equations a set of time scales is obtained that describe the main features of the morphological evolution of tidal inlets. The magnitude of these system time scales is determined by inlet geometry and sediment exchange processes. The nature and degree of interventions determine which time scales are dominant. We focus on five different tidal inlets in the Wadden Sea. For these inlets, the system time scales have been estimated. The model has been applied to simulate the morphological response of the Marsdiep and Vlie inlets to the closure of the Zuiderzee in 1932. In this way, the model and associated system time scales for each of these inlets have been validated. Results show that in both inlets, the channels display the largest adaptation time. It will take at least a century before the channels and hence the tidal inlet systems reach a new morphological equilibrium.     

Effect of the Twin Jetties as A Regulating Structure at the Tao-er Estuary

The phase one project of the twin jetties at the Tao-er Estuary yields no effect on the flow, and there is a large area of deposition. A numerical model is employed to simulate the flow field, and the scouring and silting in the channel be-tween the two jetties are analyzed. The results show that the effective tidal flux between the two jetties is reduced due to the notch located at the heel of the east jetty, and the effect of contraction-flush is not obvious. As for the regulation of this kind of estuary under the tide action, the capability of tidal flux should be fully used.     

Assessment of tidal inlet evolution and stability using sediment budget computations and hydraulic parameter analysis

Research into the response of coastlines to the opening and stabilisation of inlets has been limited by the availability of suitable data, the shortcomings of existing formulae when applied to different inlets, and the difficulties particular to multi-inlet situations. Our appraisal of methodologies for studying inlet dynamics leads us to formulate a new approach for investigating inlet evolution and stability based on combining sediment budget computations (using best estimates and uncertainty analysis) and inlet hydraulic parameter analysis.The approach developed is applied to a stabilised inlet, located within a multi-inlet system (Faro-Olhão Inlet, Ria Formosa, Southern Portugal), which was opened starting 1929 and has since been dredged periodically to maintain navigability. A series of digital maps was produced based on multi-year data acquired from charts, surveys, and aerial photos. The maps were used to compute sediment volumes for six coastal cells delineated on the basis of the morphological features of the inlet. Cell volumes and fluxes were calculated for three periods (1929–1962, 1962–1978, and 1978–2001), and overall sediment budgets were calculated for the latter two periods. Inlet hydraulic parameters measured included tidal prism, inlet channel cross-sectional area and hydraulic radius, and maximum depth of the inlet throat, and were tracked over 9 bathymetric surveys from 1947–2004. The computed budget reveals that the inlet is only at present reaching volumetric equilibrium. However, the analysis of channel cross-sectional area and radius indicates parameter stability around 1978–1985, 20–25 years before the inlet started to reach volumetric equilibrium. It is hypothesised that the observed stability in parameters for the inlet post-1978 is related to the presence of fixed jetties and to a stratigraphic control that prevents further deepening, and not to the achievement of a dynamic equilibrium.The findings indicate that the coupling of sediment budget computation and inlet parameter analysis is useful for understanding historical sediment pathways and magnitudes, and for analysing the evolution of an inlet towards equilibrium. Although the analysis of inlet parameter evolution is valuable for examining the locational/geometrical stability of an inlet, it needs to be used in conjunction with sediment budget computations in order to properly infer inlet equilibrium. Moreover, existing formulae used to infer inlet stability, which relate cross-sectional area to tidal prism, should be reviewed with a view to including other external variables (e.g., stratigraphic controls) and to making their application more flexible to cope with the range of different inlet conditions. For multi-inlet systems, the coupling of morphology and hydrodynamics analysis should be extended to all inlets in order to infer the stability of the overall system based on the distribution of the tidal prism through time and the patterns of inlet circulation and sediment transport.     

Process-based 2DH morphodynamic modeling of tidal inlets: A comparison with empirical classifications and theories

The economical and ecological importance of tidal inlets has fostered the development of empirical tools for inlet management during the last century. This study aims at confronting these empirical theories with results obtained with a process-based numerical model, MORSYS2D. This 2DH morphodynamic modeling system is applied to an idealized tidal inlet/lagoon system with different combinations of significant wave height, tidal range and tidal prism. The numerical model predictions are compared to the empirical models of Hayes, Bruun, O'Brien and FitzGerald and to morphologies observed at natural tidal inlets. The results present good accordance with observations as well as with some key behaviors predicted with the empirical theories. The predicted morphologies satisfy the relation of O'Brien between the tidal prism and the cross-sectional area, the model reproduces the conceptual model of sand by-passing by ebb-tidal delta breaching of FitzGerald and the classifications of Hayes and Bruun are generally respected. However, some inconsistencies between model results and Hayes classification highlight the limitations of applying this classification, which only considers the yearly-averaged significant wave height and tidal range, to a single tidal inlet case.     

广利河口航道整治研究

广利河口拦门沙航道水深较浅,用双导堤结合航道疏浚进行整治。通过潮流定床模型试验对航道走向、导堤间距、高程、水流流态和堤头布置等进行了方案优化,同时采用局部动床定性试验进行了验证。推荐方案沿程流速、流态分布合理,基本能维持航道水深并满足设计船型的航行条件,可供类似河口治理参考。     

潮汐汊道及其沙滩的安全风险和动力机制

为提高海水浴场的安全性,避免发生溺水事故,文章以潮汐汊道及其沙滩的动力地貌结构和发育演变为基础,研究青岛市灵山湾城市阳台海水浴场沙滩的安全风险和动力机制,并提出风险防范建议。研究结果表明:河口潮汐汊道落潮流三角洲的潮汐水道延伸至沙滩滩面,高潮时淹没,落急时水流集中,形成流向外海的高速水流,极易引发海水浴场安全事故;区域落潮流与汊道落潮流相叠加、落潮流三角洲阻挡沿岸输沙造成下游局部岸段侵蚀以及沿岸输沙变化导致水道迁移摆动等因素进一步加大潮汐汊道附近沙滩的安全风险;安全风险最大的地点位于沿岸输沙下游与区域落潮流流向一致的潮汐水道末端附近沙滩,且该位置不稳定,随波浪场发生年际和季节变化;在潮汐汊道沙滩岸段设置海水浴场前应研究其动力地貌和发育演变,划分危险区和安全区,浴场设置后定期监测并确定危险区的位置,并在沙滩安全维护和质量评价等方面将潮汐汊道作为重要判定指标。     

Relationships Between Tidal Prism and Throat Area of Tidal Inlets Along Yellow Sea and Bohai Sea Coasts

The relationship between P (spring tidal prism) and A (throat area below mean sea level) is statistically analysed in terms of 29 tidal inlets or bays along the Huanghai Sea (Yellow Sea) and Bohai Sea coasts. For 15 of these tidal inlets, the best regression equation is A(km2) = 0.845 />(km3)1.20. The analysis shows that C and n are little different from those in the P-A relationship for the inlets of the South China Sea and East China Sea coasts. It is noted that the relationship between P and A is unstable because of the difference in sediment abundance. The study shows that a united P-A relationship can be obtained for the tidal inlets of lagoon type and bay-drowned-valley type, not containing some half-circle shape bays which confront deep water. These half-circle bays do not belong to tidal inlets because they do not have enough sediment abundance and are fairly open.     

山东半岛海岸地貌与波浪、潮汐特征的关系

本文通过山东半岛海岸地貌类型与沿岸波浪、潮汐发生学关系的对比分析,引入浪潮作用指数 K,K=2.5×(H/R),H 为平均波高,R 为平均潮差.K>1时,海岸地貌演变的动力以波浪作用为主,海岸极少发育潮汐叉道和落潮三角洲,但连岛坝发育较好;K<1时,海岸地貌演变的水动力以潮汐作用为主,落潮三角洲、潮汐叉道较发育;K 值接近于1时,发育潟湖等过渡海岸地貌类型.     

Process-based modeling of morphodynamics of a tidal inlet system

The morphodynamic evolution of an idealized inlet system is investigated using a 2-D depthaveraged process-based model,incorporating the hydrodynamic equations,Englund-Hansen’s sediment transport formula and the mass conservation equation.The model has a fixed geometry,impermeable boundaries and uniform sediment grain size,and driven by shore-parallel tidal elevations.The results show that the model reproduces major elements of the inlet system,i.e.,flood and ebb tidal deltas,inlet channel.Equilibrium is reached after several years when the residual transport gradually decreases and eventually diminishes.At equilibrium,the flow field characteristics and morphological patterns agree with the schematized models proposed by O’Brien (1969) and Hayes (1980).The modeled minimum cross-sectional entrance area of the tidal inlet system is comparable with that calculated with the statistical P-A relationship for tidal inlets along the East China Sea coast.The morphological evolution of the inlet system is controlled by a negative feedback between hydrodynamics,sediment transport and bathymetric changes.The evolution rates decrease exponentially with time,i.e.,the system develops rapidly at an early stage while it slows down at later stages.Temporal changes in hydrodynamics occur in the system;for example,the flood velocity decreases while its duration increases,which weakens the flood domination patterns.The formation of the multi-channel system in the tidal basin can be divided into two stages;at the first stage the flood delta is formed and the water depth is reduced,and at the second stage the flood is dissected by a number of tidal channels in which the water depth increases in response to tidal scour.     

Morphodynamic modeling of tidal channel evolution in comparison to empirical PA relationship

Tidal channels and inlets in alluvial environments are interconnected dynamic systems that react to changing physical conditions (such as sea level rise) as well as to anthropogenic impact (such as dredging and bank protection works). Past research resulted in an empirical equilibrium relationship for inlets between the tidal prism (P) and the cross-sectional area in a tidal inlet (A). Constant PA relationships were found along several tidal basins.     

Stability analysis of a two-inlet bay system

The stability analysis for a double-inlet bay system is applied to an inlet system resembling Big Marco Pass and Capri Pass on the lower west coast of Florida. Since the opening of Capri Pass in 1967, the length of Big Marco Pass has increased from 2000 m in 1967 to 3000 m in 1988 and the cross-sectional area has decreased from 1200 m² in 1967 to 1000 m² in 1988. Since 1967, the cross-sectional area of Capri Pass has steadily increased and in 1988 was 700 m². Tides off the inlets are of the mixed type with a diurnal range of 1 m. The gross littoral transport rate in the vicinity of the inlets is estimated at 150,000 m³ yr⁻¹.For each inlet the maximum tidal velocities are calculated as a function of the gorge cross-sectional areas using a lumped-parameter model to describe the hydrodynamics of the flow. In the model it is assumed that the bay level fluctuates uniformly and the bay surface area remains constant. The velocities are used to calculate the tidal maximum of the bottom shear stress in each inlet as a function of the cross-sectional areas of the two inlets (=closure surface). Values of the equilibrium shear stress are derived from an empirical relationship between cross-sectional area and tidal prism for stable inlets along the west coast of Florida. Closure surfaces and equilibrium stress values are calculated for values of friction factors ranging from F=4×10⁻³ to F=6×10⁻³. Using the closure surfaces and equilibrium stress values, the equilibrium flow curve for each inlet is determined. The equilibrium flow curve represents the locus of the combination of cross-sectional areas for which the actual bottom shear stress in the inlet equals the equilibrium shear stress.Based on the equilibrium flow curves and the known values of the cross-sectional areas of the two inlets in 1988, it is expected that, ultimately, Big Marco Pass will close and Capri Pass will remain as the sole inlet with a cross-sectional area of 1250 m² and a maximum tidal velocity pertaining to a diurnal tide of 0.85 m s⁻¹.     

黄渤海沿岸潮汐汊道的P－A关系

本文计算了１５个潮汐汊道的大潮潮棱体Ｐ及平均海面下口门最小过水断面积Ａ之间的回归方程式。黄渤海沿岸潮汐汊道的天然状态下的Ｐ－Ａ关系为：Ａ＝０．０８４５Ｐ１．０２０。Ｐ与Ａ不仅具有密切的相关性，还有相当大的离散性，这主要与潮汐汊道所获取的泥沙丰度及潮汐汊道的发育阶段有关。与南海、东海沿岸Ｐ－Ａ关系的对比表明，中国海和海区Ｐ－Ａ关系中的常数Ｃ和ｎ差别不大。研究也表明，泻湖型和海湾－溺谷湾型两种潮汐汊道可求得统一的Ｐ－Ａ关系。但与滨临深水区的半环抱形海湾不同。后者主要因为没有较充裕的泥沙供应及海湾水域较为开敞，而不应列入潮汐汊道的范畴。     

象山港潮滩坡度对潮动力影响的数值研究

象山港属于狭长型半封闭港湾,湾内分布有大面积潮滩。多年以来象山港内实施了大量海岸工程及养殖工程,湾内潮滩坡度发生了显著变化。基于非结构网格和有限体积数值模式（FVCOM）建立象山港三维潮动力模型,研究湾内不同区域潮滩坡度变化对象山港潮动力过程的影响机理。结果表明：潮滩坡度下降将增大湾内纳潮量,进而增大M2分潮振幅和迟角,反之则反。铁港潮滩坡度的减小（增大）,将改变底部耗散项,进而增大（减小）M4分潮振幅。由于M2和M4分潮的振幅在湾顶较大,所以湾顶（铁港）潮滩坡度对象山港潮动力过程的影响明显大于侧岸（西沪港）。西沪港潮滩坡度对象山港潮动力过程的影响是局部的。铁港、西沪港潮滩坡度对湾内潮汐不对称、余流及潮能影响显著。铁港潮滩坡度的改变均会减弱湾内落潮占优程度。西沪港区域潮滩坡度的减小将减弱湾内落潮占优趋势,反之则反。铁港和西沪港潮滩坡度的减小,将增大余流大小及潮能密度,进而潮能耗散增大,反之则反。研究结果对河口海岸潮滩区域的工程建设及生态修复有重要参考价值。     

Morphodynamic responses to the deep water harbor development in the Caofeidian sea area,China's Bohai Bay

Vast bay-type tidal inlets can be found along the coastal zones of China. They are generally suitable for deep water channels and large harbors because of the presence of large water depth and good mooring conditions. The deep channel, in front of the head of Caofeidian Island in Bohai Bay, China, is a typical bay-type tidal inlet system. The tidal current, a type of reverse flow, makes the key contribution to maintain the deep water depth. The co-action of waves and tidal currents is the main dynamic force for sediment motion. Waves have significant influence on the sediment concentration. Based on the characteristics of waves, tidal currents, sediment and seabed evolution in Caofeidian sea area, a 2D mathematical model for sediment transport under influence of waves and tidal currents is developed to study the development schemes of the Caofeidian Harbor. The model has been verified for spring and neap tides, in winter as well as in summer of 2006. The calculated tidal stages, flow velocities, flow directions and sediment concentrations at 15 stations are in good agreement with the observations. Furthermore, the calculated data on pattern and magnitude of sedimentation and erosion in the related area agree well with the observations. This model has been used to study the effects of the reclamation scheme for Caofeidian Harbor on the hydrodynamic environment, sediment transport and morphological changes. Attentions are paid to the project inducing changes of flow velocities and morphology in the deep channel at the south side of Caofeidian foreland, in the Laolonggou channel and in various harbor basins. The conclusions can provide the important foundation for the protection and use of bay-type tidal inlets and the development of harbor industry.     

Tidal and residual circulations in coupled restricted and leaky lagoons

Finite element numerical modelling based on field data is used to study the tidal and tidally induced residual circulation dynamics of a coupled “restricted” and “leaky” coastal lagoon system located in the Magdalen Islands, Gulf of Saint-Lawrence. Havre-aux-Maisons Lagoon (HML) is of a “restricted” nature with a neutral inlet in terms of tidal asymmetry. Grande-Entrée Lagoon (GEL) is of a “leaky” nature with a marked ebb dominance at the inlet due to direct interactions between the main astronomical tidal constituents. The imbalance caused by the different tidal filtering characteristics of both inlets combines with the internal morphological asymmetries of the system to produce a residual throughflow from HML to GEL. The residual circulation is also characterized by strongest values at both inlets, very weak residual currents in HML deep basin and a dipole of residual eddies over the deeper areas of GEL. Further investigations including numerical tracer experiments will be necessary to achieve a full understanding of the long term circulation of this lagoonal system.     

Tracer studies on the updrift margin of a complex inlet system

Three sediment transport studies using tracers were performed at Ancão Inlet (southern Portugal). The objectives of the experiments were to understand the sediment transport pathways and to determine their magnitudes on the updrift margin of an inlet. In order to apply the traditionally used Space Integration Methodology to the tracer experiments, adaptations were required. The study area was divided into four morphologically defined sectors and this was found to be a key factor for the applicability of tracers in a complex area. The four sectors are as follows: sector A is the straight part of the updrift beach; sector B is the upper area of the swash platform; sector C is the lower area of the swash platform; and sector D represents the inner parts of the inlet margin. The integrated analysis of all collected data (forcing mechanisms, tracer distribution and topographic evolution) led to the determination of the sediment pathways. A semi-quantitative conceptual model was developed in order to explain the sediment transport pathways and magnitudes that a known mass of sediment would follow after arriving at the swash platform. It was found that the areas with the largest sediment accumulation were sectors B and C, while almost no sediment was retained in sector D, which experienced significant erosion. According to the model, 53% of the initial mass of sediments remain in the system after two tidal cycles. It is hypothesised that sediment losses are caused by sediment transport towards the ebb delta and by sediment bypassing occurring from the ebb delta to the downdrift beach through swash bar processes. The herein defined conceptual model represents a useful tool that could be applied to other tidal inlets under similar conditions, facilitating sediment budget studies around tidal inlets.     

ON TIDAL INLETS OF CHINA

Tidal inlets should be distinguished from tidal channels which connect open sea at both ends. In China, tidal inlets may be grouped into (1) embayment-lagoon type on sandy or rocky coast, (2) estua-rine inlets on the mouths of small or medium rivers which may be on mud plain coast, and (3) artificial inlets enclosed by breakwaters. Improvement of navigation channels of these inlets follows the same principle using O'Brien P-A formula. Where accurate oceanographical and littoral drift data are not available, a careful analysis of coastal morphology and sedimentology may provide a useful clue for the evaluation of the value of inlets in navigation.     

Stability of some New Zealand coastal inlets

The relation of tidal compartments to entrance cross‐sectional areas is examined for 20 coastal inlets. Sixteen inlets conform to a linear relationship, which is consistent with stable entrances the sizes of which are determined by the ability of the tidal flow to transport sediment. Based on this criterion deposition should be taking place at the entrances of the other four inlets: Wellington, Lyttelton, and Akaroa harbours, and Paterson Inlet. Available data confirm this for Wellington and Lyttelton Harbours.     

The effect of a topographic high on the morphological stability of a two-inlet bay system

The cross-sectional stability of two tidal inlets connecting the same back-barrier lagoon to the ocean is investigated. The condition for equilibrium is the cross-sectional area tidal prism relationship. In an earlier study [Van de Kreeke, J., 1990. Can multiple inlets be stable? Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 30: 261–273.], using the same equilibrium condition, it was concluded that where two inlets connect the same basin to the ocean ultimately one inlet will close. One of the major assumptions in that study was that the water level in the basin fluctuated uniformly. In hindsight this assumption might be too restrictive. For example, in the Wadden Sea the back barrier lagoon consists of a series of basins, rather than one single basin, separated by topographic highs. These topographic highs limit but do not exclude the exchange of water between the sub-basins. For this reason in the present study, a topographic high in the form of a weir was added, separating the back-barrier lagoon in two sub-basins. The water level in the sub-basins, rather than in the back-barrier as a whole, is assumed to fluctuate uniformly. For this schematization the hydrodynamic equations are solved using a finite difference method. The results, together with the equilibrium condition, yield the equilibrium flow curve for each of the inlets. The intersections of the two equilibrium flow curves represent combinations of cross-sectional areas for which both inlets are in equilibrium. The stability of the equilibriums was investigated using a non-linear stability analysis resulting in a flow diagram. Calculations were carried out for different inlet and weir characteristics. Sinussoidal tides were the same for both inlets. The results show that for relatively large wetted cross-sectional areas over the topographic high, approaching the situation of a single basin, there are no combinations of inlet cross-sectional areas for which both inlets are in a stable equilibrium. This supports the conclusion in the earlier study. For relatively small wetted cross-sectional areas over the topographic high there is one set of stable equilibriums. In that case the two-inlet bay system approaches that of two single-inlet bay systems.