An estimate of Atlantic Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) resources

An interhemispheric box model of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation (THC) is modified by replacing the tropical box with two vertically resolved sub-domains. Seawater flows from large-scale ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) are allowed in one of the tropical sub-domains. Under present conditions and standardized OTEC operations, steady-state net power production density would reach a maximum of about 80 kW/km² (corresponding to 1.8 TW) with a cold seawater withdrawal per unit area of about 14 m/yr. This maximum reflects the impact of large OTEC flows on the oceanic thermal structure, although the THC would not be significantly affected. It is larger than a recently suggested worldwide value of the order of 30 kW/km² because of the relative strength of the Atlantic THC. Under asymmetric high-latitude warming scenarios potentially representative of current climatic trends, a substantial weakening or a reversal of the THC are possible. In the former case, recoverable OTEC resources could practically vanish. In the latter case, the emergence of a stronger reverse THC eventually could boost OTEC resources. Such events are hypothetical and would unfold over centuries, but the mere possibility of their occurrence challenges the accepted notion that OTEC resources are forever renewable.     

OTEC cold-water pipe research

Shelf-mounted Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) plants require installation of cold-water pipes (CWP) on slopes of40degto depths of 1000 m. In addition, tower platforms containing OTEC power systems may be located on lesser sloped terrain near shore and exposed to special environmental loading problems affecting foundation design. Shelf-mounted installations require careful attention to site selection and geotechnical considerations for foundation integrity on sloped surfaces. This paper primarily discusses research associated with cold-water pipe and foundation installations on steep slopes, although research continues on tower platforms located on the shelf. At least five nations are in various stages of development of OTEC systems for island applications. Each of their systems is either shelf mounted or land based and requires that a large diameter cold-water pipe be installed on a steep slope to provide cold water from 1000-m depths. In addition to the installation and deployment of the large cold-water pipe, the most significant problem is the design and installation of suitable foundations that will last for several decades. To date there is very little experience in the offshore industry for large installations on steep slopes. A major scale-model research project is underway on the slopes of the island of Hawaii. A section of pipe 2.4 m in diameter and 24 m long was installed using combination concrete foundations and joints. The pipe and foundations are fully instrumented to measure environmental loading forces due principally to currents and waves. Environmental measurements will also be taken in the test area. The measurement data will be used to validate available analytical models for subsequent use in aiding industry in providing more cost-effective designs for OTEC pipes and foundations.     

深海悬垂取水管振动特性研究

深海悬垂取水管的设计趋向于大直径、高内流流速,内流对取水管振动特性的影响不可忽略,分析内部流动引起的管道动态失稳行为以及评估失稳临界流速具有重要工程意义。基于小尺度模型试验,研究内流对深海悬垂取水管道振动特性的影响规律,结果表明：随着内流流速增加,取水管模型会发生动态失稳行为,表现为一种间歇性的近周期运动,该运动主要由管道一阶弯曲模态引起的不稳定性诱导。管道材料、顶端连接方式及底部配重块均影响其动态稳定性,顶端固定连接时质量比小的管道更易发生动态失稳;顶端变为铰接时,质量比大的管道失稳临界流速变小,质量比小的管道失稳临界流速变大。相比顶端边界条件,底部配重块对管道失稳临界流速影响不显著但可以减小其振动幅值。     

A literature review of the saturation state of seawater with respect to calcium carbonate and its possible significance for scale formation on OTEC heat exchangers

An investigation has been made of available data on the saturation state of seawater with respect to calcium carbonate and its possible significance for scale formation on Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) heat exchangers. Pertinent oceanographic data is lacking at or near potential OTEC sites for the calculation of the degree of saturation of seawater with respect to calcium carbonate. Consequently, only “extrapolated” saturation values can be used. These indicate that near surface seawater is probably supersaturated, with respect to the calcium carbonate phases calcite and aragonite, at all potential OTEC sites. The deep seawater that would be brought to the surface at the potential Atlantic Ocean sites is also likely to be supersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate. The deep seawater at the potential Pacific Ocean sites may be slightly undersaturated.The fact that OTEC heat exchangers will be operating in seawater, which is supersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate, means that if nucleation of calcite or aragonite occurs on the heat exchanger surfaces, significant growth rates of calcium carbonate scale may be expected. The potential for calcium carbonate nucleation is highest at cathodic metal surface locations, which are produced as the result of aluminum corrosion in seawater. Consequently, corrosion and scale formation may be closely related. What the possible effects of biofouling may be on this process are not known.     

Engineering analysis of pumping cold deep nutrient-rich seawater for mariculture and nuclear power plant cooling

The engineering feasibility of pumping deep seawater has been achieved by using a simplified mathematical model. It was proved that the pumping power required to draw seawater from deep sea is always less than 100 kW (134 h.p.) for pipe diameters below 15 cm and mass flowrate lower than 100 tons/hr, which is suitable for mariculture farmings, and the replacement of warm surface seawater by cold deep seawater as nuclear power plant coolant is technically feasible for pipes with diameters larger than 150 cm and intake levels below 600 m. This model can be further extended to study the performance of the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) system onshore.Continuation of this study should be the design of deep seawater prototype pumping system, the construction of pilot plants of cooling applications and mariculture experiments, and the feasibility analysis of the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion power plants.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface seawater and in indigenous mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from coastal areas of the Saronikos Gulf (Greece)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were identified and measured in surface seawater and in the tissues (gills and mantle) of indigenous black mussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis, collected from three coastal sites of Saronikos Gulf (Greece), a gulf that exhibits high levels of pollution. The total PAHs measured by spectrofluorometry in the surface seawater were found in the range of 425–459 ng L⁻¹ at the most polluted sites 1 and 2 (Elefsis Bay–Salamis Island) and in the range of 103–124 ng L⁻¹ at site 3 (Aegina Island). PAHs' sources in seawater were identified by application of specific PAH ratios, such as phenanthrene/anthracene and fluoranthene/pyrene. Levels of PAHs in soft tissues (gills and mantle) of indigenous mussels were much higher than those reported for seawater. Total PAH concentrations in mantle tissues were in the range of 1300–1800 ng g⁻¹ dry weight (dw) tissue at sites 1 and 2 and approximately 380 ng g⁻¹ dw at site 3. In gill tissues total PAH concentrations were in the range of 1480–2400 ng g⁻¹ dw at sites 1 and 2 and approximately 430 ng g⁻¹ dw at site 3. PAHs composition was dominated by two-, three- and four-ring compounds in seawater, where 17 different PAH compounds were identified and measured in mussel tissues. Mussels can be used as sentinel organisms to monitoring PAHs' contamination, since they concentrate PAHs from the surrounding water media and therefore making the chemical analysis simpler and less prone to error than that for water. In surface seawater possible weathering and photodegradation due to hot climates contribute to reduced PAHs concentrations.     

海洋温差能发电系统仿真平台开发及应用

构建海洋温差能发电系统仿真平台,对于开展该领域的技术研究具有重要意义。本文介绍了海洋温差能发电系统仿真平台研发技术,包括仿真系统热力循环模型和海水输送模型的构建、仿真平台的技术框架、仿真系统的特点及功能等,详细介绍朗肯循环各热力学过程的仿真计算模型,并利用该仿真平台分别计算了朗肯循环下9 种不同工质在海洋温差能发电系统中的运行效率,比较了它们之间的性能差异,给出了不同装机容量下的工质流量、温海水流量、冷海水流量及蒸发器、冷凝器的热负荷计算值。该成果为海洋温差能研究提供了一个有价值的仿真试验研究平台。     

光谱法测定海水中溶解态无机氮的研究进展

溶解态无机氮(dissolved inorganic nitrogen,DIN)主要由亚硝酸盐-氮(NO^-₂-N)、硝酸盐-氮(NO^-₃-N)和铵氮(NH⁺₄-N)组成,它们在海洋的生物地球化学循环过程中起重要作用。但人类活动向海洋输入了大量无机氮,导致一系列环境问题。为了更好地开展海洋氮循环研究和环境污染管理,需对海水中的DIN进行测定。在众多分析方法中,光谱法因其通用性好、适用范围广、所需设备简单,成为测定海水DIN的首选。本文总结了近10年来基于光谱法测定海水DIN的研究进展,包括紫外分光光度法测定NO^-₃-N、萘乙二胺分光光度法测定NO^-₂-N和NO^-₃-N、次溴酸盐氧化-分光光度法测定NH⁺₄-N、靛酚蓝分光光度法测定NH⁺₄-N...     

海洋温差能开发特点及其对生态环境的影响方式

根据海洋温差能转换(OTEC)工艺过程的特点,分析了海洋温差能开发对海洋生态环境的特殊影响。认为大流量吸排水形成的大尺度水团在海洋中的重新分布,致使厂址周边海水的层化结构和环流结构以及海水盐度、溶解氧和营养水平等参数发生变化,进而对海洋环境造成很大改变,形成了OTEC技术特殊的环境影响方式。还着重分析了羽状流对初级生产力的影响,以及卷载和冲击对海洋生物的影响,分析归纳了海洋温差能开发生态环境影响的关键评价因子,对下一步的研究重点提出了建议。为未来开展洋温差能开发以及全面评价海洋温差能开发造成的生态环境影响提供技术参考。     

Otec cold water pipe design for problems caused by vortex-excited oscillations

Vortex-excited oscillations of marine structures result in reduced fatigue life, large hydrodynamic forces and induced stresses, and sometimes lead to structural damage and to destructive failures. The cold water pipe of an Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) plant is nominally a bluff, flexible cylinder with a large aspect ratio (L/D = length/diameter), and is likely to be susceptible to resonant vortex-excited oscillations. The objective of this paper is to survey recent results pertaining to the vortex-excited oscillations of structures in general and to consider the application of these findings to the design of the OTEC cold water pipe. Practical design calculations are given as examples throughout the various sections of the report.This paper is limited in scope to the problems of vortex shedding from bluff, flexible structures in steady currents and the resulting vortex-excited oscillations. The effects of flow non-uniformities, surface roughness of the cylinder, and inclination to the incident flow are considered in addition to the case of a smooth cylinder in a uniform stream. Emphasis is placed upon design procedures, hydrodynamic coefficients applicable in practice, and the specification of structural response parameters relevant to the OTEC cold water pipe. There are important problems associated with the shedding of vortices from cylinders in waves and from the combined action of waves and currents, but these complex fluid/structure interactions are not considered in this paper.     

Turbidity currents on steep slopes: Application of an avalanche-type numeric model for ocean thermal energy conversion design

To minimize cold water pipe lengths, the most favorable land or fixed platform based Ocean Thermal Energy Conversions (OTEC) sites have subbottom slopes greater than 5°. Observations at OTEC sites in Hawaii indicate that turbidity currents of an impulsive or episodic nature can occur with frontal speeds of several meters per second. Such speeds and the attendant potential for sediment transport and abrasion along routes containing OTEC installations indicate that the pertinent features of these flows are an important design criteria for OTEC or any other steep-slope marine installation. To satisfy this need, models of oceanic turbidity flows and similar flows have been examined. The model that addresses OTEC steep-slope conditions most succinctly was developed originally by Hopfinger and Tochon-Danguy (1977) for snow avalanches on land. This two-dimensional avalanche model is used to estimate the speed and growth characteristics of potential turbidity currents downslope for various postulated marine conditions of initial flow density, height, volume, and length at slopes from 5 to 60°. The areas of additional research required to increase reliability of the analyses are in the initiation and initial development of a turbidity plume, the mechanisms of sediment entrainment to and loss from the plume, and three-dimensional in addition to two-dimensional studies.     

Revisiting ocean thermal energy conversion

Increasing concerns regarding oil spills, air pollution, and climate change associated with fossil fuel use have increased the urgency of the search for renewable, clean sources of energy. This assessment describes the potential of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) to produce not only clean energy but also potable water, refrigeration, and aquaculture products. Higher oil prices and recent technical advances have improved the economic and technical viability of OTEC, perhaps making this technology more attractive and feasible than in the past. Relatively high capital costs associated with OTEC may require the integration of energy, food, and water production security in small island developing states (SIDSs) to improve cost-effectiveness. Successful implementation of OTEC at scale will require the application of insights and analytical methods from economics, technology, materials engineering, marine ecology, and other disciplines as well as a subsidized demonstration plant to provide operational data at near-commercial scales.     

Trichodesmium erythraeum (Ehrenberg) bloom along the southwest coast of India (Arabian Sea) and its impact on trace metal concentrations in seawater

The incidence of a large scale Trichodesmium erythraeum bloom along the southwest coast of India (Arabian Sea) observed in May 2005 is reported. Around 4802 filaments of T. erythraeum ml⁻¹ seawater was observed and a colony consisted of 3.6 × 10⁵ cells. The bloom was predominant off Suratkal (12° 59′N and 74° 31′E) with a depth of about 47 m, covering an area of 7 km in length and 2 km width. The concentrations of Zinc, Cadmium, Lead, Copper, Nickel and Cobalt were determined in samples collected from the bloom and non-bloom sites using stripping voltammetry. The observed hydrographical and meteorological parameters were found to be favorable for the bloom. The concentrations of Zinc, Cadmium and Nickel were found to be higher at bloom stations, while the concentrations of Lead, Copper and Cobalt were found to be very low at bloom stations. Elevated concentrations of Cadmium and Cobalt were observed at Valappad mainly due to the decomposition of detrital material produced in the bloom. Statistically significant differences (P > 0.01) in metal concentrations between the bloom and non-bloom stations were not observed except for Copper. Metals such as Lead, Copper and Cobalt were removed from the seawater at all places where bloom was observed. Cadmium was found to be slowly released during the decaying process of the bloom.     

Testing and evaluation of GFRP composite deck panels

Fiber reinforced polymer composite deck panels are effectively used in the construction of offshore structures such as pontoons, floating docks, oil drilling platforms, ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) systems and harbor structures due to their excellent corrosion and fatigue resistance, high strength to weight ratio and stiffness to weight ratio and less maintenance cost. The main objective of this investigation is to study the load–deflection behavior of glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite deck panels under static loading. Three prototype GFRP composite deck panels each with a size of 3000 mm×1000 mm×300 mm were fabricated using hand lay-up process and tested under a factored load of AASHTO HS20/IRC Class A wheeled vehicle. The deck panels were analyzed using the standard FE software, ANSYS. Maximum deflection and strain at factored load, and flexural and shear rigidities were calculated in the FE analysis and compared with the experimental data, and also with the specifications given by the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT), USA. From this study, it is concluded that the fabricated GFRP deck panels satisfied the performance criteria specified by ODOT and can be used in berthing structures, bridges in coastal regions, offshore oil platforms, OTEC systems and also in seismic prone areas.     

Effect of environmental factors on photodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the water-soluble fraction of Kuwait crude oil in seawater

Photodegradation of PAHs in the water-soluble fraction of Kuwait crude oil in seawater was investigated under various environmental factors (temperature, light intensity, oxygen levels and presence of a sensitizer) in laboratory conditions. All factors investigated had significant effect on the degradation rates of PAHs. At 15 °C almost all PAHs optimally degraded at an oxygen level of 4 ppm. For lower molecular weight PAHs a light intensity of 500 W/m² in the presence of the sensitizer worked well. Higher molecular weight PAHs degraded at faster rates at a light intensity 750 W/m². At 30 °C, most of the PAHs degraded optimally at an oxygen level of 0 ppm and light intensity of 500 or 750 W/m² in presence of the sensitizer. At 40 °C, most of PAHs degraded optimally at low oxygen concentrations (0 and 4 ppm) and a light intensity of 500 W/m² in the presence of the sensitizer. Linear regression indicated that for most of the compounds, light intensity had the greatest effect on degradation rates.     

Accuracy and precision of lead isotopic composition measurements in seawater

Accurate and precise measurements of stable lead isotopic compositions in seawater are critically dependent upon the ultra-clean techniques developed for accurate measurements of low (0.1 ng kg⁻¹) lead concentrations in seawater by thermal ionization mass spectrometry. These include both limiting and measuring lead contamination during all phases of sampling, storage and analysis. Essential to this are samplers and shipboard facilities for collecting uncontaminated samples, and laboratory facilities for cleaning containers, purifying reagents and processing samples and standards. Techniques are also required to compensate for the absence of an internal standard, refractory hydrocarbon contaminants and the limited sensitivity of the detectors. Adaptation of those techniques has lowered the lead analytical detection limit for seawater analyses to 0.02 ng kg⁻¹. While the precision of these analyses (0.1–0.4%) is less than that of high precision isotope ratio measurements (0.001%), it is sufficient to identify sources of lead inputs to the ocean and to trace biogeochemical cycles of lead within the ocean. The accuracy of these initial data is currently being established with interlaboratory calibrations and evaluated in terms of its oceanographic consistency.     

Hydroelastic response of marine risers subjected to internal slug-flow

It is the purpose of this study to investigate the dynamic behaviour of catenary pipelines for marine applications, assuming the combined effect of harmonic motions imposed at the top, and the internal slug-flow. The analysis is based on the assumption of a steady slug-flow inside the pipe that results in a relatively simplified model for the formulation of the internal flow. The slug-flow model is described using several assumptions and empirical correlations which attempt to reveal the ill-understood and concealed properties of the slug-flow. The pipeline dynamics are investigated in the two dimensional space omitting the out-of-plane vibrations. The system of differential equations is generic and accounts for the steady effect of the internal liquid as is conveyed through the structure.The two models, those of the internal slug-flow and the pipeline’s dynamical model, are properly combined through the internal flow terms of the dynamic equilibrium system. The solution provided is achieved using a frequency domain technique which is applied to the linearized governing set. The effect of the slug-flow is assessed through comparative computations with and without internal flow effects. The conclusions are drawn having the structure excited under axial and normal motions paying particular attention to the variation of the dynamic components along the complete length of the pipeline.     

抗坏血酸还原海水中硅酸盐化学工艺优化研究

为了满足硅酸盐水下自动测量的要求,采用抗坏血酸作还原剂对硅酸盐进行检测,并对该工艺进行了优化.实验研究了溶液浓度、显色时间与吸光度的关系,确定了盐度对测量结果的影响,给出了硅酸盐现场自动分析工艺优化流程图.将此方法应用到水下现场分析仪上,能连续测量43 d,数据重现性较好.     

Oxidation of copper(I) in seawater at nanomolar levels

The oxidation and reduction of nanomolar levels of copper in air-saturated seawater and NaCl solutions has been measured as a function of pH (7.17–8.49), temperature (5–35 °C) and ionic strength (0.1–0.7 M). The oxidation rates were fitted to an equation valid at different pH and ionic strength conditions in sodium chloride and seawater solutions:

The reduction of Cu(II) was studied in both media for different initial concentrations of copper(II). When the initial Cu(II) concentration was 200 nM, the copper(I) productions were 20% and 9% for NaCl and seawater, respectively. The effect of speciation of copper(I) reduced from Cu(II) on the rates was studied. The Cu(I) speciation is dominated by the CuCl₂⁻ species. On the other hand, the neutral chloride CuCl species dominates the Cu(I) oxidation in the range of 0.1 M to 0.7 M chloride concentrations.     

Uncertainties in the preparation of Ra Mn fiber standards

Delayed coincidence counters (RaDeCC), used for measuring ²²³Ra and ²²⁴Ra preconcentrated from water onto MnO₂-impregnated acrylic fiber (“Mn-fiber”), require a standard Mn-fiber column that has a precisely known activity of ²²⁴Ra for calibration. This may be done by adding an aged ²²⁸Th standard solution to adsorb both ²²⁸Th and its daughter ²²⁴Ra quantitatively onto a Mn fiber. We used both seawater and deionized water (DIW) for testing the adsorption efficiency of Th and Ra onto Mn fibers. Our experimental results show that more than 50% of thorium (²³²Th and ²²⁸Th) breaks through the Mn-fiber column when DIW is used as a medium. However, near quantitative recoveries are obtained if filtered (0.45 μm) seawater is used to prepare the standard. In the case of pure DIW, the pH (initial pH  5.3) rises to > 10 after passing through the column while seawater (initial pH  7.8) changes to  7.2. Thus, the lack of thorium adsorption in DIW may be attributed to this huge increase of pH and the consequent formation of Th(OH)₄ and polyhydroxyl colloids. Based on these observations, we recommend that one should use either artificial seawater or natural seawater (which has negligible ²²⁴Ra and ²²⁸Th) as a loading solution after 0.45 μm filtration. In addition, the thorium adsorption efficiency should be confirmed either by thorium analysis of the effluent solution or long-term monitoring of the supported ²²⁴Ra on the Mn fiber using the RaDeCC. Similar cautions are likely necessary for making ²²³Ra standards by adsorption of ²²⁷Ac onto Mn fibers.