Review of Methodologies for Offshore Wind Resource Observation and Assessment

Observation and assessment of wind resources is a prerequisite for wind farm construction. Due to the investment cost of offshore wind farm is very expensive, more accurate assessment of wind resources is needed to reduce their investment risks. From traditional field observation to multi-platform remote sensing and from ordinary mathematical statistics to coupled numerical model simulation, abundant offshore wind data and evolving assessment methods make the results of offshore wind resource assessment more and more reliable. Poor station observations and rich remote sensing data are distinct characteristics of offshore wind data. Technology integration of applying multi-scale coupled models to assimilate multi-source remote sensing and station data is a mainstream development direction of offshore wind resource assessment methods. The wind resource assessment for offshore wind farm should focus on data quality and method selections of data interpolation, wind speed calculation of return period and wind energy parameters adjusted for a long term condition because these factors can significantly affect the operating efficiency of future wind farm.     

A sensitivity study of the WRF model in offshore wind modeling over the Baltic Sea

Accurate wind modeling is important for wind resources assessment and wind power forecasting.To improve the WRF model configuration for the offshore wind modeling over the Baltic Sea,this study per-formed a sensitivity study of the WRF model to multiple model configurations,including domain setup,grid resolution,sea surface temperature,land surface data,and atmosphere-wave coupling.The simu-lated offshore wind was evaluated against LiDAR observations under different wind directions,atmo-spheric stabilities,and sea status.Generally,the simulated wind profiles matched observations,despite systematic underestimations.Strengthening the forcing from the reanalysis data through reducing the number of nested domains played the largest role in improving wind modeling.Atmosphere-wave cou-pling further improved the simulated wind,especially under the growing and mature sea conditions.Increasing the vertical resolution,and updating the sea surface temperature and the land surface infor-mation only had a slight impact,mainly visible during very stable conditions.Increasing the horizontal resolution also only had a slight impact,most visible during unstable conditions.Our study can help to improve the wind resources assessment and wind power forecasting over the Baltic Sea.     

Review and Prospect of the Study on Soil Wind Erosion Process

Soil wind erosion processes include mechanical process and dynamic changes of the factors affecting soil wind erosion, as well as the corresponding changes of wind erosion rate. The former is rich in experimental and theoretical researches that have clearly defined the process of particle starting, transporting and settling. The latter focuses on the dynamic changes of various wind erosion factors and the response of soil wind erosion rate to the change of the factors, of which systematic research of which is very limited. The difficulties in research of soil wind erosion process include: ①Dynamic parameterization of wind erosion factors; ②Observation and quantitative expression of the dynamic changes of wind erosion factors; ③Scaling problem of wind erosion process; ④Prediction ability of wind erosion models. At present, it is urgent to carry out the following work on soil wind erosion. The first is to establish standard wind erosion observation field in typical regions to obtain continuous and complete data of wind erosion in the field; the second is to study the saturation path of wind sand flow to solve scale problem; and the third is to construct a wind erosion model with solid theoretical foundation and fully consider both mechanical process of soil wind erosion and dynamic changes of the factors.     

Wind erosion occurrence probabilities maps in the watershed of the Ningxia–Inner Mongolia reach of the Yellow River,China

The watershed of the Ningxia–Inner Mongolia reach of the Yellow River suffers serious wind erosion hazards and the areas with high wind erosion probabilities need to be identified to help in the building of the correct wind-sand blown hazard protection systems. In this study, the Integrated Wind-Erosion Modelling System model and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data set were used to identify the distributions of threshold wind speeds and wind erosion occurrence probabilities. Through field observations, the relationships among NDVI, vegetation cover, frontal area (lateral cover), roughness length, and threshold friction velocity were obtained. Then, using these relationships, the spatial distributions of threshold wind speeds for wind erosion at a height of 10 m for the different months were mapped. The results show that the threshold wind speed ranged from 7.91 to 35.7 m/s. Based on the threshold wind speed distributions, the wind erosion occurrence probabilities of different months were calculated according to the current wind speed. The results show that the distributions of wind erosion occurrence probabilities and threshold wind speeds were related to each other. The resulting maps of threshold wind speeds and wind erosion occurrence probabilities would help environmental and agricultural researchers in determining some strategies for mitigating or adapting from wind erosion hazards.     

Wind erosion hazard assessment of the Mongolian Plateau using FCM and GIS techniques

The most serious environmental problems of the Mongolian Plateau are land degradation and sand storms caused by wind erosion, but the evaluation of wind erosion at regional scales has been a difficult process in wind erosion research. In this study, fuzzy c-means clustering (FCM) was used to assess the spatial pattern of wind erosion hazard on the Mongolian Plateau. By fuzzy clustering four main wind erosion factors (vegetation cover, average degree of land surface relief, degree of soil dryness and intensity of wind energy), wind erosion hazard was classified into six grades. Results show that FCM can effectively integrate related information between wind erosion and environmental factors, which provides the basis for predictive mapping of wind erosion hazard. Spatial patterns of wind erosion hazard indicate a gradual trend of increasing hazard in the Mongolian Plateau from east to west. Similar patterns were also found in NDVI and soil dryness, indicating that soil moisture and vegetation are the most important factors in the formation of wind erosion hazard. In addition, the distribution of different levels of wind erosion hazard is basically consistent with the regional distribution of landscape vegetation types in the Mongolian Plateau.     

Intermittent saltation

During a typical wind erosion event, large variations in wind strength produce temporal variations in saltation activity. The focus of this paper is on a special type of unsteady behaviour - intermittent saltation - a process characterized by bursts of blowing soil interspersed with periods of inactivity. We report here measurements from a field study designed to measure intermittent saltation during three separate 1-h periods. Our measurements show that natural wind erosion events consist of intermittent bursts of blowing soil often occupying a small fraction of the total time. We have managed to describe the level of intermittency by a simple and universal mathematical expression. We find that the level of intermittency is governed by whether typical wind fluctuations span the gap between the mean wind speed and threshold wind speed. We propose a nondimensional number which expresses the ratio of these velocity scales, called the relative wind strength, and find that the level of intermittency can be described by a simple distribution function of the relative wind strength.     

山东地区风电场功率特性及其负荷相关性分析

随着山东省风电装机容量的快速增加和风电场规模的不断扩大,风电对电网安全运行的影响日益显现。风力发电是一种特殊的电力,它以自然风为原动力,风资源的随机性和间歇性决定了风电机组的输出特性也是波动和间歇的。本文通过对风电有功功率的波动特性及功率特性进行分析,仿真了不同容量风电入网对电网有功功率平衡的影响,总结了山东地区风电入网后电网有功功率呈现的特点,这对指导大规模风电入网运行的发电计划有参考价值。     

Dynamic analysis of emergency inter-organizational communication network under public health emergency: a case study of COVID-19 in Hubei Province of China

Storm surge induced by hurricane is a major threat to the Gulf Coasts of the United States. A numerical modeling study was conducted to simulate the storm surge during Hurricane Michael, a category 5 hurricane that landed on the Florida Panhandle in 2018. A high-resolution model mesh was used in the ADCIRC hydrodynamic model to simulate storm surge and tides during the hurricane. Two parametric wind models, Holland 1980 model and Holland 2010 model, have been evaluated for their effects on the accuracy of storm surge modeling by comparing simulated and observed maximum water levels along the coast. The wind model parameters are determined by observed hurricane wind and pressure data. Results indicate that both Holland 1980 and Holland 2010 wind models produce reasonable accuracy in predicting maximum water level in Mexico Beach, with errors between 1 and 3.7%. Comparing to the observed peak water level of 4.74 m in Mexico Beach, Holland 1980 wind model with radius of 64-knot wind speed for parameter estimation results in the lowest error of 1%. For a given wind model, the wind profiles are also affected by the wind data used for parameter estimation. Away from hurricane eye wall, using radius of 64-knot wind speed for parameter estimation generally produces weaker wind than those using radius of 34-knot wind speed for parameter estimation. Comparing model simulated storm tides with 17 water marks observed along the coast, Holland 2010 wind model using radius of 34-knot wind speed for parameter estimation leads to the minimum mean absolute error. The results will provide a good reference for researchers to improve storm surge modeling. The validated model can be used to support coastal hazard mitigation planning.

     

Characteristics of wind-blown sand and dynamic environment in the section of Wudaoliang-Tuotuo River along the Qinghai-Tibet Railway

Based on the detailed wind data and in situ observation of wind-blown sand in the section of Wudaoliang-Tuotuo River along the Qinghai-Tibet Railway, the dynamic environment of sand flow, involving sand-laden wind, drift potential, sand transport and their time variation were investigated. The prevailing direction of sand-laden wind obviously varies seasonally. Sand-laden wind presents unidirectional characteristics from winter to the next spring and its prevailing direction is westerly. In summer, northeasterly wind begins to increase and lasts for a short period. The annual drift potential along the Qinghai-Tibet Railway reaches 970.54 Vector Units (VU), which belongs to a high-energy wind environment. Directional variability of wind regime (RDP/DP, RDP is the resultant drift potential (RDP) and DP is drift potential) is 0.88. The RDP is 854.31VU in the direction of 89.7°, which indicates that westerly sand-laden wind prevails in this region. Sand transport is well correlated to the frequency of sand-laden wind and increases with drift potential logarithmically.     

On the influence of changes in the drag relation on surface wind speeds and storm surge forecasts

In this study it is investigated how uncertainties in the magnitude of the drag coefficient translate into uncertainties in storm surge forecasts in the case of severe weather. A storm surge model is used with wind stress data from a numerical weather prediction (NWP) model, to simulate several recent storms over the North Sea. For a fixed wind speed, the wind stress is linear in the drag coefficient. However, in the NWP model the wind speed is not fixed and increasing the drag in the NWP model results into reduced wind speeds. The results from simulations show that for given increase in the drag coefficient, the weakening of the 10-m wind field reduces the increase in the stress considerably. When the Charnock parameter is increased in the NWP model, the resulting relative changes in the wind stress are almost independent of the wind speed. This is related to the fact that the depth of the surface boundary layer depends on the wind speed. The ratio between relative changes in the wind stress and relative changes in the drag coefficient depends on the wind speed. For 10-m wind speeds larger than 20?m?s^?1 the ratio is 0.52; for lower wind speed criteria the ratio is somewhat larger (??0.60). Approximately 36% of the relative change in the drag coefficient translates into a relative change in the surge in stations at the Dutch coast. The relative increase in the storm surge is approximately 68% of the relative increase in the stress.     

Characteristics and Formation Mechanism of Wind Streaks on Mars

Wind streaks with two-dimensional plane shapes are a collective term for a variety of aeolian features that display distinctive albedo surface patterns and they do not have three-dimensional shape. Wind streaks are widely distributed on Mars， and are good proxy indicators of the surface wind regime， and even of global circulation patterns on Mars. However， the study on wind streaks has been largely ignored for a long time. Based on published studies， this paper summarized the types， morphology and formation mechanism of wind streaks. According to the relationship between albedo and obstacles， wind streaks can be divided into six basic types： bright wind streaks， dark wind streaks， mixed-tone wind streaks， splotches and related wind streaks， dune shadow wind streaks and frost wind streaks， of which the bright and dark streaks are the most common and representative， for they are the most abundant types of variable features on Mars. Wind streaks are primarily distributed in the latitudinal zone between 60°S and 60°N with little difference among different types， and they have many shapes such as tapered， fan， oval and parallel shapes due to the diverse obstacles. Considering the relationship between sediment characteristics and aeolian erosion and deposition， bright wind streaks are generally depositional with a consensus and dark streaks are erosional with a controversy. In the absence of Martian meteorological observation data， the retrieval of surface wind regime based on the orientation of wind streaks has good reliability， which helps to understand the modifications of Martian surfaces by wind in the geological context.     

Assessment of wind speeds that damage buildings

A method to determine the wind speed to cause damage to buildings is described. The method is based on engineering calculations of wind loads generated on the weakest links of buildings such as the roof-to-wall joints of a wood-frame house. Data needed for the calculation include wind direction, building geometry, conditions of windows, doors and other exterior openings immediately before the occurrence of wind damage, and details of the weakest links that initiated the failure. The method can be used for estimating the maximum wind speed of a storm from an in-depth post-disaster investigation. Results of this study indicate that it takes no more than the wind speed of a F-2 tornado to completely destroy either a wood-frame house or a nonreinforced masonry building. The study supports the belief that the wind speed associated with F-3, F-4 and F-5 tornadoes are grossly overrated.     

1961—2017年南极冰盖近地面风时空变化研究

基于19个人工气象站1961—2017年风速风向实测数据对南极冰盖近地面风速时空变化和风向进行了分析。结果表明：近50年来,南极冰盖近地面各季节平均风速和年平均风速变化的空间模式基本一致。东南极0°~120° E沿海地区风速呈显著上升趋势;南极半岛气象站风速变化趋势各异,且变化速率相差甚大,但从区域平均结果来看,南极半岛年和季节平均风速均呈上升趋势。这与近几十来局地气温、气压变化及南半球环状模趋向于正位相发展有关。东南极受下降风和绕极东风影响,大部分地区盛行偏南风或偏东风,且频率较高风向稳定;而受天气活动影响,南极半岛风向复杂,主风向频率低,风向多变。     

青藏高原公路路基周边风场特征风洞实验研究

路基高度是影响冻土路基工程热力稳定性的一个重要指标。同时,不同高度的路基对其周边风场的扰动也将不同,进而影响到局地的地-气能量交换过程。为揭示不同高度路基对其周边风场特征的影响规律及程度,基于风洞实验,研究了3种环境风速条件下青藏高原典型高度公路路基周边风场分布特征,并进行了量化分区。结果表明：路基坡前为流场减速区,不同高度情况下路基坡前减速区水平范围差异显著。10 m·s^-1环境风速条件下,3、4和5 m高路基坡前减速区水平范围约为1.8、2.2和2.5倍路基高度（H）。在路基坡前减速区0.3~1.1 m高度范围内,随环境风速增加,同一水平高度流场在靠近路基过程中风速的变化率呈下降趋势。路基上部为流场加速区,路肩处风速增长幅度与路基高度呈正相关。路基坡后为低速回流区,路基高度越大,低速回流区水平范围越大,10 m·s^-1环境风速条件下,3、4和5 m高度路基坡后低速回流区水平范围分别约为2.0H、3.0H和4.1H。低速回流区后,流场逐渐恢复到初始运动状态,其消散恢复区水平范围与环境风速密切相关,但与路基高度关系不显著,10 m·s^-1环境风速条件下,3、4和5 m高度路基坡后消散恢复区水平范围均约为9.8H。通过考虑路基高度对其周边风场分布的影响,可为块石、通风管、热管等冻土路基结构的设计和布局优化提供参考。     

Innovative approach to design a new national low speed wind tunnel

A new multipurpose wind tunnel with adjustable test section designed in the science and research branch of Islamic Azad University site could be used either as the environmental, subsonic or climatic wind tunnels. For this purpose, a new design approach was adopted in which through the adjustment of the wind tunnel cycle, i.e. the nozzle of test section,it could be utilized as any of the three wind tunnels. A design used for environmental wind tunnels and other contraction which was adjusted by 50 % through changes in the polynomial contraction for other applications. As a result, the best fitted profile for the environmental wind tunnels contraction was selected by contraction best fit program. Consequently, the flow properties and flow separation of contractions were analyzed by the computational fluid dynamics model in a computer software. This method is also suitable for existing low speed wind tunnels with special applications.     

Effect of protection against wind according to the variation porosity of wind fence

This study examines shelter effect against the wind by using wind fence with various porosities and distance. The shelter effect of wind fence was investigated by a wind tunnel test. Flow characteristics of velocities and turbulences behind wind fence were measured using a hot-wire anemometer. This was done by varying the porosity by 0, 20, and 40% of the wind fence. The wind fence distance ranged from 1H to 9H. In addition, the overall characterization of the wind fence was investigated by measuring a total of 28 points on the wind fence, which forms a lattice structure on it with 7 points in the lateral direction and 4 points in the vertical direction. The results indicate that the degree of the turbulence is lowered and the velocity of the wind is decreased when porosity of 40% is used at a distance of 4H–7H. The effectiveness of the wind fence depends on the porosity and distance. Porosity of 20% proved to be effective for the protection area of 1H–3H, while that of 40% was effective for the protection area of 4H–6H.     

生物固土用于防风固沙的研究进展

文章对近年来基于生物固土技术的防风固沙研究进行了回顾和分析。常用于防风固沙的生物过程包括基于微生物或酶诱导碳酸钙沉积（MICP或EICP）的矿化固土技术,加入黄原胶等生物高聚物作为辅助剂,可获得更好的固土效果。土壤风蚀过程中,除了风力本身,风携带的跃移颗粒对土的撞击,也是侵蚀破坏的重要因素,这在生物固化土风蚀试验中体现明显。生物固化防风固沙的处理过程简单易行,以尿素和钙盐作为处理材料,用细菌或脲酶作为催化诱导媒介,对土体进行单遍喷洒处理即可获得很好的抗风效果。室内抗风试验中,将风蚀速率与临界起动风速两个指标结合是较为合理的评估方法。在室内和现场条件下,表面贯入强度测试可用来快速测定处理效果和抗风性能。目前的现场试验研究表明,生物固化土中植物可以生长,但是极端条件下生长受限。为了将该方法推向实用,需要从多重侵蚀因子作用下的抗风力侵蚀能力、生态恢复能力和现场施工技术等方面进一步研究探索。     

利用渤海风场推算模式对中尺度风场预报订正试验

在渤海,中尺度模式预报的风速通常比实际风速低得多.利用1990-2001年渤海不同观测站的风场、温度场资料,按季节、风向对海、陆风速统计分析,得到海陆风速的对比值,同时对造成海陆风速差异的原因进行动力、热力等分析.结果表明:海、陆风速在不同的天气系统以及动力和热力方面都存在明显差异.据此渤海风速场推算模式进行了改进,既考虑动力摩擦的作用,也考虑热力差异引起的海陆风增幅作用,改进的渤海风场推算模式有了很大的提高.因此,应用改进后的渤海风速场推算模式,对中尺度数值预报的风速场进行订正,使预报的风速明显提高,更加接近实际情况.     

北方浅水湖泊冬季结冰对风生流的影响

为了研究北方浅水湖泊冬季结冰对风生流的影响,采用MIKE21构建山东省聊城市东昌湖水动力学模型,分析真实风场作用下6种风应力拖曳系数对应的模拟流速与实测数据的差异,进一步讨论了冰盖面积对模拟结果产生的影响。结果表明,风应力拖曳系数为随风速连续变化比设置为常数模拟精度提高20%左右,其中采用微风条件下的风应力拖曳系数表达式模拟效果最好。此外,冬季水体结冰对风生流数值模拟影响较大,尤其是在被冰盖所覆盖的水域,风应力对水体流动的作用减弱甚至被抵消。与传统的风生流模拟相比,在北方浅水湖泊冬季风生流模拟中,引入冰场或是对风应力拖曳系数进行相应调整是有必要的。     

风蚀对中国北方脆弱生态系统碳循环的影响

风蚀是中国北方脆弱生态系统土壤质量退化和沙漠化的关键因素。文章基于土壤剖面普查和土壤侵蚀遥感调查数据,计算出风蚀土壤有机碳的侵蚀量和空间分布,并与风蚀区的净第一性生产力(NPP)比较。结果发现土壤风蚀区的一个显著特征是表层土壤有机质含量较小,并且随着土壤风蚀强度的增加,相应的表层土壤平均有机质含量和NPP基本上逐渐减小,而相应的土壤有机碳的侵蚀量却明显增大。在中国北方严重风蚀的脆弱生态区,土壤有机碳的侵蚀量超过了NPP,风蚀影响了生态系统的正常碳循环。