Marine renewable energy and public rights

Marine renewable energy is likely to be an important part of UK energy policy over the next decades. A start has already been made, but to generate power on a significant scale requires the use of vast areas of ocean, on which there are competing claims. Legislation, and in particular the Energy Act 2004, goes a long way towards giving developers the legal infrastructure they need, to invest with confidence. But it is far from perfect, in dealing with important competing rights. This article has a narrow (but important) focus. It assumes that there are no problems over jurisdiction or international law. It is concerned principally with the rights of UK citizens. The issue is about reconciling the generation of large-scale marine renewable energy with other legitimate uses of the sea, and in particular fishing and navigation rights.     

Strategic priorities for assessing ecological impacts of marine renewable energy devices in the Pentland Firth (Scotland,UK)

The Pentland Firth, located between the north coast of mainland Scotland (UK) and the Orkney Islands, is recognised as an excellent location for the utilisation of tidal stream technology. Potential ecological impacts associated with tidal stream technology may ultimately depend on device design, array size and deployment location. Available ecological data for the Pentland Firth is summarised and strategic priorities for assessing ecological impacts are provided. Baseline data on marine species and habitats in the Pentland Firth is severely lacking and consequently the integrity of any environmental impact assessment could be compromised by this lack of data.     

Marine governance in an industrialised ocean: A case study of the emerging marine renewable energy industry

The world׳s oceans are currently undergoing an unprecedented period of industrialisation, made possible by advances in technology and driven by our growing need for food, energy and resources. This is placing the oceans are under intense pressure, and the ability of existing marine governance frameworks to sustainably manage the marine environment is increasingly being called into question. Emerging industries are challenging all aspects of these frameworks, raising questions regarding ownership and rights of the sea and its resources, management of environmental impacts, and management of ocean space. This paper uses the emerging marine renewable energy (MRE) industry, particularly in the United Kingdom (UK), as a case study to introduce and explore some of the key challenges. The paper concludes that the challenges are likely to be extensive and argues for development of a comprehensive legal research agenda to advance both MRE technologies and marine governance frameworks.     

Dynamics of steel offshore platforms under ship impact

This paper deals with the prediction of the dynamic response of steel offshore platforms to high energy impacts from typical supply vessels. The contribution of the high modes of a cantilever beam type structure with a concentrated top mass subjected to transverse impact from rigid and deformable strikers is analysed. A procedure to develop simplified equivalent systems for efficient structural response analysis is presented and its reliability tested by comparing the results from the explicit non-linear FE simulations. Effects such as the overall rotation of the installation, plastic deformations in the contact area, different impact locations and different hinge mechanisms are taken into account. It is shown that the use of the proposed equivalent systems with a reduced number of DOF's can provide accurate results at significantly less computational efforts as compared to the FE simulations. The derivation of some parameters of the equivalent dynamic elastic–plastic SDOF/2SDOF systems, however, needs to consider the complexity of the analysed steel frames and perform preliminary non-linear static analyses. Therefore, further studies of different impact scenarios on platforms with different configurations are recommended to augment the results presented here.     

Bargaining a net gain compensation agreement between a marine renewable energy developer and a marine protected area manager

When the development of marine renewable energy (MRE) is only possible inside already established marine protected areas (MPAs), and there is a risk of ecosystem loss, environmental or monetary compensation -being the last step in a hierarchy of mitigation measures- might be an option for working out a trade-off between energy production and nature protection. In this article, it is argued that for this type of siting situation, instead of the well-established strategy of no net loss, a net gain should be provided from the MRE developer to the MPA manager, which acts as an incentive for the manager to cooperate and covers future potentially lost conservation benefits due to MRE potential damages. Based on this argument, a hypothetical example is used to demonstrate that a net gain is ensured only when there is a societal surplus from a combined MRE-MPA arrangement that can be divided between the players through bargaining. However, when asymmetric information is involved, it is shown that cooperative solution concepts are more sufficient for leaving both players better off after coexistence than before.     

Comparative studies reveal variability in the use of tidal stream environments by seabirds

The global increase in tidal stream turbine installations creates a need to identify and mitigate any impacts on seabird populations. Within Scotland, UK, the vulnerability of black guillemots Cepphus grylle and European shags Phalacrocorax aristotelis is dependent on their tendency to exploit microhabitats characterised by fast mean horizontal current speeds (≥2 ms^–1), and tidal states with maximum current speeds, within tidal stream environments. Identifying consistencies in their relative use of different microhabitats (fast versus slow mean horizontal current speeds) and tidal states (increasing/decreasing versus maximum currents) across these habitats could assist risk assessment and mitigation measures at both a regional and development site level. Datasets from shore-based surveys collated across 6 tidal stream environments showed that the probability of detecting foraging black guillemots and European shags tended to be higher in fast and slow microhabitats, respectively. However, differences between microhabitats were reversed and/or marginal in 3 out of the 5 sites used for each species. Differences between tidal states were almost always marginal. These variabilities show that a species' vulnerability could differ greatly among development sites, and environmental impact assessments (EIA) must quantify habitat-use using dedicated and site-specific surveys to reduce uncertainty. However, a greater understanding of the mechanisms underlying variation in the use of tidal stream environments is needed when selecting a suite of potential development sites that reduce the possibility of population-level impacts. The current collection of physical and biological data across tidal stream environments could therefore prove invaluable for the protection of seabird populations.     

山东省周边海域波浪能资源评估

采用第三代海浪模式SWAN对2001-2010年期间山东省周边海域的波浪状况进行了数值模拟。波浪能数值模拟值与台站观测值的比对结果表明模拟值可靠、实用。分析发现山东省周边海域平均波能流密度以2 000W/m以下为主,低于中国南部海域及欧美沿岸波能流密度。选取12个典型代表点,从波能流密度大小、变化特征、稳定性等角度分析了不同代表点的波浪能情况,发现山东周边波能流密度受气候变化影响近10年来呈上升趋势。综合不同区域波浪能大小及需求情况,建议选取山东半岛东部海域、蓬莱外围岛屿近渤海中部海域和渤海中部海域作为波浪能开发利用的首选区域。其中成山头东部海域波能流密度在冬季高达5 000 W/m,在该季节大部分区域可归为一类资源丰富区。基于此,建议开发利用中小规模的波浪能供电设备或供电设施。     

Proposing a coordinated environmental effects monitoring (EEM) program structure for the offshore petroleum industry,Nova Scotia,Canada

Environmental effects monitoring (EEM) identifies, quantifies, and compares predicted environmental impacts of a proposed industrial project to those observed after the project has been developed. Several EEM program structures exist, while the structure used by Environment Canada to monitor impacts of the pulp and paper industry has proven to be effective. The aim of this study is to provoke discussion on the development of an effective and coordinated petroleum EEM program structure for the offshore of Nova Scotia, Canada. A structure that supports development of a national EEM program for the petroleum industry is then proposed. Advantages of a coordinated EEM program structure include: (1) reduced cost of the EEM; (2) fewer gaps and less overlapping of responsibilities; (3) fewer calculated risks to the marine environment; and (4) improved environmental safeguards.     

Towards best environmental practice for cetacean conservation in developing Scotland's marine renewable energy

Marine renewable energy is seen as an important component of the UK's future energy strategy and contribution to reducing the greenhouse gas emissions responsible for climate change. The UK aims to generate a total of 33 GW (gigawatts) of offshore wind energy. Its implementation strategy includes the development of ten offshore wind farms within Scottish territorial waters. In addition, between 1000 MW (megawatts) and 2600 MW of marine renewable energy generating capacity could be achieved in Scotland using wave and tidal power devices. However, there are negative environmental impacts associated with marine renewable energy. Intense noise is produced during pile driving, drilling and dredging operations with potential consequences for cetaceans. There are also increases in vessel activities during exploration, maintenance and construction with association risks of disturbance and collisions. Some underwater devices will be large and may be positioned in arrays across the habitats that cetaceans frequent. The consequences of encounters between cetaceans and such devices are as yet unknown. It is recommended that the Scottish Government complete full and transparent Marine Spatial Planning, including consideration of cumulative impacts, before moving to license appropriate sites.     

第三方活动冲击荷载作用下近海管道损伤机理及风险评估研究现状

平台坠物、船舶抛锚等第三方活动引起的冲击损伤是近海管道失效的主要原因,时刻威胁中国海洋油气开发系统的安全性。为保障近海油气管道安全运行,围绕冲击荷载作用下管道损伤及失效评估这一中心问题,从管道损伤机理研究、含冲击损伤管道安全评估、管道工程项目风险评估3个方面总结了国内外研究发展现状,明确了影响结构安全的关键问题,并对未来研究工作提出建议。挖沟埋深为管道防护冲击损伤的有效手段,土体强度是防护效果关键因素,应重点关注土体强度空间变异性问题;管道冲击损伤主要为平滑凹陷和弯折凹陷,对于后者应进一步确定其在内压荷载下的剩余强度及疲劳强度;风险评估中失效判据对于结果有显著影响,需构建考虑多种安全性评估准则的失效判据体系。     

Regulating wave and tidal energy: An industry perspective on the Scottish marine governance framework

The emerging ocean energy industry, which seeks to utilise waves and tides to generate electricity, is developing in many jurisdictions. The UK, and Scotland in particular, is strongly interested in these technologies, and has made considerable efforts to reform its marine governance processes to better meet the needs of innovative new marine industries. This paper provides an industry perspective on this regulatory framework, reporting on the experiences of ocean energy project and technology developers. Semi-structured interviews with companies with practical experience with Scotland's regulatory framework provide evidence of a number of legal and regulatory challenges, as well as interesting insights into how developers are interacting with new marine governance systems. The paper details the findings of these interviews and offers some suggested directions for future research.     

Citizen science and the power of public participation in marine spatial planning

Marine spatial planning (MSP) is becoming increasingly used in the sustainable management of marine and coastal ecosystems. However, limitations on time and resources often restrict the data available for MSP and limit public engagement and participation in the MSP process. While citizen science is being increasingly used to provide fine-scale environmental data across large terrestrial planning areas, there has been little uptake in MSP to date. This paper demonstrates how consistent citizen observations can be used to identify hotspots of good and poor environmental health across a MSP region, and where environmental health has improved or degraded in the past five years; information that is difficult to obtain by other means. The study demonstrates how citizen science provides valuable insight into environmental health across a MSP region, while fostering a supportive space for the public to contribute their own observations and participate in the planning process.     

The co-location of offshore windfarms and decapod fisheries in the UK: Constraints and opportunities

The offshore wind sector in the UK is expanding rapidly and is set to occupy significant areas of the coastal zone, making it necessary to explore the potential for co-location with other economic activities. The presence of turbine foundations introduces hard substrates into areas previously dominated by soft sediments, implying that artificial reef effects may occur, with potential benefits for fisheries. This review focuses on the possibilities for locating fisheries for two commercially important decapods, the brown crab Cancer pagurus and the European lobster Homarus gammarus, within offshore wind farms.Existing understanding of habitat use by C. pagurus and H. gammarus suggests that turbine foundations have the potential to act as artificial reefs, although the responses of these species to noise and electromagnetic fields are poorly understood. Offshore wind farm monitoring programmes provide very limited information, but do suggest that adult C. pagurus associate with turbine foundations, which may also serve as nursery areas. There was insufficient deployment and monitoring of rock armouring to draw conclusions about the association of H. gammarus with offshore wind farm foundations. The limited information currently available demonstrates the need for further research into the ecological and socio-economic issues surrounding fishery co-location potential.     

Business case for mussel aquaculture in offshore wind farms in the North Sea

The European Blue Growth strategy aims to expand the new maritime sectors of aquaculture, energy, biotechnology, coastal tourism and mineral mining. Growth of these sectors will increases pressure on the seas, particularly on those areas that are densely used by traditional sectors such as fisheries and transport. This has triggered interest in developing multiuse of space and multiuse platforms at sea. This paper assesses the feasibility of offshore mussel production project in wind farms by design and ex-ante evaluation of a mussel aquaculture system in the North Sea. A system for mussel cultivation in the Dutch Borssele offshore wind farm was designed, producing both mussel seed and consumption-sized mussels with semi-submerged longlines. Based on the economic model and the risk assessment, this paper concludes that mussel aquaculture is an appealing commercial model for increased returns in offshore wind farms. The economic models shows that the internal rate of return and net present value are positive and based on the sensitivity analysis, it can be concluded that these results are robust.     

3D modelling of the impacts of in-stream horizontal-axis Tidal Energy Converters (TECs) on offshore sandbank dynamics

The tidal energy sector is a growing industry in the UK and beyond. Energy developers’ interests are progressing towards the deployment of large arrays of tidal energy converters (TECs). Numerous factors will affect decision making related to arrays siting and size. One key factor is the effect that the TEC arrays may have on the natural sediment transport patterns and the sea bottom morphodynamics. The Inner Sound Channel located between the Island of Stroma of Pentland Firth and the Scottish Mainland (UK) has been accredited for a large-scale TEC array installation to be developed in the future. Three morphodynamically active, large sandbanks are located in the Inner Sound channel. This study investigated the impacts of tidal energy extraction from a large array of TECs on the sediment dynamics and morphology of these sandbanks. A large-scale 3D hydrodynamic and morphodynamic Delft3D model was set up to computationally model Pentland Firth, Inner Sound Channel in order to study the impacts of tidal energy extraction from a generic TEC array, on the existing hydrodynamic and morphodynamic regime. A range of hypothetical energy extraction scenarios was modelled. Results reveal that the changes to morphodynamics of these sandbanks as a result of large scale tidal energy extraction far exceeds the morphology change under the natural hydrodynamic regime and that the severity of morphology change depends on the level of energy extraction.     

Recreational use of offshore wind farms: Experiences and opinions of sea anglers in the UK

The expansion of offshore wind farms (OWFs) is likely to increase conflict with other marine users as different sectors compete for space. There may also be positive interactions, as the artificial reef effects from energy infrastructure have the potential to sustain and enhance fishing opportunities. Recreational sea angling is an important sector within the UK but the experiences and opinions of UK sea anglers with respect to OWFs have not been documented. To address this, an online survey was undertaken with recreational anglers around the UK (n=199). Respondents represented a range of socio-demographic and angling characteristics, although male, more frequent and older fishers as well as club members were over-represented compared to a 2012 national survey. One quarter of the respondents had fished around the perimeter of or within an OWF, most on multiple occasions, and 73% of those who had not expressed a willingness to do so in future. Anglers reported both positive and negative effects on catch success when fishing near or within OWFs compared to their experiences of the same site prior to OWF development. Outcomes for individual species were also mixed. Anglers recognised the potential artificial reef effects of OWFs and their role as a “safe haven”, particularly due to the exclusion of commercial fishers. Negative perceptions included restricted access, harm to marine wildlife, and visual impact. There is little evidence that OWFs will have a significant economic impact on recreational fishing, as most anglers are unlikely to change their behaviour in response to future developments.     

Rights and ownership in sea country: implications of marine renewable energy for indigenous and local communities

The adoption of UN Convention of the Law of the Sea in 1982 created optimism for indigenous peoples and marginalised coastal communities that they may (re)gain control of, or improve access to, marine resources. However concerns were also raised that opening the seas to industrial development might create threats for traditional users of the sea. Twenty-five years later the potential enclosure of large areas of coastal seas to marine renewable energy development is reigniting debates about marine governance, access and control over marine resources. Case studies in Scotland, Canada, New Zealand and Australia reveal a dynamic tension between: an economic development ‘blue growth’ agenda requiring the creation of private rights in the sea; and socio-political drivers which seek to address historic injustices and increase access to natural resources by indigenous and marginalised coastal communities. As yet there is little evidence of this tension being adequately addressed by emerging institutional frameworks for managing marine resources.     

海洋温差能开发特点及其对生态环境的影响方式

根据海洋温差能转换(OTEC)工艺过程的特点,分析了海洋温差能开发对海洋生态环境的特殊影响。认为大流量吸排水形成的大尺度水团在海洋中的重新分布,致使厂址周边海水的层化结构和环流结构以及海水盐度、溶解氧和营养水平等参数发生变化,进而对海洋环境造成很大改变,形成了OTEC技术特殊的环境影响方式。还着重分析了羽状流对初级生产力的影响,以及卷载和冲击对海洋生物的影响,分析归纳了海洋温差能开发生态环境影响的关键评价因子,对下一步的研究重点提出了建议。为未来开展洋温差能开发以及全面评价海洋温差能开发造成的生态环境影响提供技术参考。