The deep thermal field of the Glueckstadt Graben

With this paper, we assess the present-day conductive thermal field of the Glueckstadt Graben in NW Germany that is characterized by large salt walls and diapirs structuring the graben fill. We use a finite element method to calculate the 3D steady-state conductive thermal field based on a lithosphere-scale 3D structural model that resolves the first-order structural characteristics of the graben and its underlying lithosphere. Model predictions are validated against measured temperatures in six deep wells. Our investigations show that the interaction of thickness distributions and thermal rock properties of the different geological layers is of major importance for the distribution of temperatures in the deep subsurface of the Glueckstadt Graben. However, the local temperatures may result from the superposed effects of different controlling factors. Especially, the upper sedimentary part of the model exhibits huge lateral temperature variations, which correlate spatially with the shape of the thermally highly conductive Permian salt layer. Variations in thickness and geometry of the salt cause two major effects, which provoke considerable lateral temperature variations for a given depth. (1) The “chimney effect” causes more efficient heat transport within salt diapirs. As a consequence positive thermal anomalies develop in the upper part and above salt structures, where the latter are covered by much less conductive sediments. In contrast, negative thermal anomalies are noticeable underneath salt structures. (2) The “thermal blanketing effect” is caused by thermally low conductive sediments that provoke the local storage of heat where these insulating sediments are present. The latter effect leads to both local and regional thermal anomalies. Locally, this translates to higher temperatures where salt margin synclines are filled with thick insulating clastic sediments. For the regional anomalies the cumulative insulating effects of the entire sediment fill results in a long-wavelength variation of temperatures in response to heat refraction effects caused by the contrast between insulating sediments and highly conductive crystalline crust. Finally, the longest wavelength of temperature variations is caused by the depth position of the isothermal lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary defining the regional variations of the overall geothermal gradient. We find that a conductive thermal model predicts observed temperatures reasonably well for five of the six available wells, whereas the steady-state conductive approach appears not to be valid for the sixth well.     

New heat flow data from the immediate vicinity of the Kola super-deep borehole: Vertical variation in heat flow confirmed and attributed to advection

We present new heat flow values and other geothermal data in the upper crystalline crust in the immediate vicinity of the 12.4-km deep Kola super-deep borehole, NW Russia. Our results show a systematic vertical increase in geothermal gradient and heat flow density as deep as we could measure (1.6 km). Our results confirm earlier results on vertical heat flow trends of in the uppermost part of the Kola super-deep hole, and imply that the thermal regime is not in steady-state conductive conditions. In an area of 3-km × 5-km measurements were performed in 1–2-km deep boreholes surrounding the Kola super-deep hole and on core samples from these holes. Temperature logs are available from 36 holes. Core data exists from 23 boreholes with a total length of 11.5 km at a vertical resolution of 10 m. We carried out a very detailed study on thermal conductivity with regard to anisotropy, inhomogeneity and temperature dependence. Tensor components of thermal conductivity were determined on 1375 core samples from 21 boreholes in 3400 measurements. Additionally, we measured specific heat capacity, heat generation rate, density, porosity, and permeability on selected subsets of core samples. Heat flow from 19 boreholes varies between 31 and 45 mW m⁻² with an average value of 38 mW m⁻². In most boreholes the vertical heat flow profiles show a considerable variation with depth. This is consistent with observations in the upper part of the Kola super-deep borehole. We conclude that this variation is not caused by technical operations but reflects a natural process. It is considered to be due to a combination of advective, structural and paleoclimatic effects. Preliminary 3-D numerical modeling of heat and flow in the study area provides an indication of relative contributions of each of these factors: advective heat transfer turns out to have a major influence on the vertical variation of heat flow, although transient changes in surface temperature may also cause a significant variation. Heterogeneity of the rocks in the study area is less important.     

冀中牛驼镇凸起地温场的特点及地下热水的开发利用

牛驼镇凸起是冀中拗陷中一个显著的次级正向构造,其地理位置见图1。1973—1978年进行石油普查和勘探时,在该区相继发现了地下热水,引起了人们的注意,先后对热水的分布有过报道和论述^[1,2]。鉴于牛驼镇凸起(包括容城凸起)地热异常在华北平原具有代表性,我们在石油部门的协助下,在本区较系统地开展了地温测量并收集有关资料进行研究。本文试图剖析这个典型地区地温场的特点,作为圈定和预测华北平原地热异常区以及分析地下热水分布规律的基础。     

Heat tracing to examine seasonal groundwater flow beneath a low-gradient stream in rural central Illinois,USA

The thermal profile of a streambed is affected by a number of factors including: temperatures of stream water and groundwater, hydraulic conductivity, thermal conductivity, heat capacity of the streambed, and the geometry of hyporheic flow paths. Changes in these parameters over time cause changes in thermal profiles. In this study, temperature data were collected at depths of 30, 60, 90 and 150 cm at six streambed wells 5 m apart along the thalweg of Little Kickapoo Creek, in rural central Illinois, USA. This is a third-order low-gradient baseflow-fed stream. A positive temperature gradient with inflection at 90-cm depth was observed during the summer period. A negative temperature gradient with inflection at 30 cm was observed during the winter period, which suggests greater influence of stream-water temperatures in the substrate during the summer. Thermal models of the streambed were built using VS2DHI to simulate the thermal profiles observed in the field. Comparison of the parameters along with analysis of temperature envelopes and Peclet numbers suggested greater upwelling and stability in temperatures during the winter than during the summer. Upwelling was more pronounced in the downstream reach of the pool in the riffle and pool sequence.     

Simulation of heat transfer performance using middle-deep coaxial borehole heat exchangers by FEFLOW

Due to its large heat transfer area and stable thermal performance,the middle-deep coaxial borehole heat exchanger (CBHE) has become one of the emerging technologies to extract geothermal energy. In this paper,a numerical modeling on a three-dimensional unsteady heat transfer model of a CBHE was conducted by using software FEFLOW,in which the model simulation was compared with the other studies and was validated with experimental data. On this basis,a further simulation was done in respect of assessing the influencing factors of thermal extraction performance and thermal influence radius of the CBHE. The results show that the outlet temperature of the heat exchanger decreases rapidly at the initial stage,and then tended to be stable; and the thermal influence radius increases with the increase of borehole depth. The heat extraction rate of the borehole increases linearly with the geothermal gradient. Rock heat capacity has limited impact on the heat extraction rate,but has a great influence on the thermal influence radius of the CBHE. When there is groundwater flow in the reservoir,the increase of groundwater velocity will result in the rise of both outlet temperature and heat extraction rate. The heat affected zone extends along with the groundwater flow direction; and its influence radius is increasing along with flow velocity. In addition,the material of the inner pipe has a significant effect on the heat loss in the pipe,so it is recommended that the material with low thermal conductivity should be used if possible.     

咸阳地热田钻孔温度测量及水动力系统

地热田温度场分析, 不仅为地热田类型划分和热源机理研究提供科学根据, 而且可以为确定地热田有利开采区域和深度提供直接依据。本文报道了咸阳地热田13口钻孔的系统(准)稳态测温数据, 对研究区温度的垂向分布特征做了初步分析, 并据此划分了地热田水动力系统。结果表明, 咸阳地热田属于以传导为主的沉积盆地型地热田, 地温梯度为26.2~40.1 ℃/km, 平均为32.4 ℃/km。然而, 与典型的传导型地热田相比, 咸阳地热田的地温场特征又存在特殊性, 表现为钻孔温度-深度曲线分段性明显: 浅部受地表水流动对温度场的影响, 地温曲线呈现出锯齿形波动; 钻孔中上部受地表水和深部水热活动影响较小, 温度曲线为传导性地热特征; 井孔中下部测温曲线明显"下凹", 揭示了地下水沿渭河断裂侧向补给的同时使地层温度降低; 井孔下部温度随深度异常增大, 表明存在异常压力流体封存箱。测温资料揭示了咸阳地热田水动力系统在垂向上存在多层结构: 浅部为垂向重力驱动型, 中上部为正常压实型, 中下部为侧向重力驱动型, 下部为封闭型。基于咸阳地热田水动力系统的多层结构, 建议将各系统赋存的地热资源分别进行规划和开发。     

Influence of lithology and fluid flow on the temperature distribution in a sedimentary basin: A case study from the Cold Lake area, Alberta, Canada

A detailed study of the groundwater and terrestrial heat flow was carried out over an area of 23,700 km² west of Cold Lake, Alberta, which is part of the western Canada sedimentary basin. The information for the study was provided from data from 3100 wells drilled in the area. The screening and processing of thousands of stratigraphic picks, drillstem test data, bottom hole temperatures and formation water chemistry data was performed mainly using a specially designed software package. As a result, every stratigraphic unit is characterized by appropriate hydraulic and thermal parameters.

A sequence of aquifers, aquitards and aquicludes was differentiated. The groundwater flow in the Paleozoic aquifers is regional in nature and mainly horizontal. The flow in the Cretaceous aquifers is of intermediate type, mainly downward oriented. In general, the permeability of the Cretaceous and Paleozoic strata has such low values that the fluid velocity is less than 1 cm/yr.

The convective heat transport in the hydrostratigraphic sequence is negligible with respect to the conductive heat transfer, as shown by the Peclet number of the fluid and heat flow in porous media. The flow of the terrestrial heat flux from the Precambrian basement of the sedimentary basin to the atmosphere is controlled by the variability in the thermal properties of the formations in the basin.

The geothermal gradients were computed by hydrostratigraphic unit using a linear regression fit to the temperature data. As expected, they show higher values for the less conductive layers, and lower values for the more conductive ones. The weighted average, or the integral geothermal gradient of the whole sedimentary column, was computed by considering the difference between the temperature measured at the Precambrian basement and the annual average temperature at the surface. The areal distribution of the integral geothermal gradient (with an average of 22.0 mK/m) shows a strong correlation with the lithology.

The areal temperature distribution for each hydrostratigraphic unit was analyzed by mapping the deviation of the measured value from the computed geothermal gradient. The lateral heat flow from warmer to colder areas is one order of magnitude smaller than the vertical heat flow. In the more homogeneous units, the lateral heat flow presents a trend that seems to reflect the geometry and lithology.     

Response of hydrothermal activity in different types of soil at ground surface to rainfall in permafrost region

In order to understand the hydrothermal activity mechanism of active layers to rainfall in permafrost regions caused by humidification of climate, the differences of ground surface energy balance and hydrothermal activity in different types of shallow soil with the consideration of rainfall were discussed. Based on the meteorological data in 2013 observed at Beiluhe observation station of Tibet Plateau, three types of shallow ground soil (i.e., sandy soil, sandy loam and silty clay) were selected to compare the differences in the water content and energy balance at the ground surface, dynamic processes of water and energy transport in active layers and coupling mechanism under rainfall condition in the plateau using a coupled water-vapor-heat transport model. The results show that the increase of soil particle size leads to the increase of surface net radiation and latent heat of evaporation, but the decrease of soil heat flux. The difference of surface energy balance, especially the sensible heat flux and latent heat of evaporation, are larger in the warm season but smaller in the cold season. The liquid water transport under hydraulic gradient and the water-vapor transport under thermal gradient are obvious as the particle size in soil increases. However, the water-vapor flux under thermal gradient increases but the liquid water flux under hydraulic potential gradient decreases. As a result, the water content in shallow soil decreases accordingly but it increases slightly at the depth of 25 ~75 cm. Moreover, with the increase of soil particle size, the thermal conductivity of soil, convective heat transfer under rainfall and surface evaporation increase, but the soil heat conduction flux and soil temperature gradient decrease. Thus, soil temperature in sandy soil is much higher than that of sandy loam and silty clay at the same depth. The permafrost table declines with the increase of the thickness of active layer, which is unfavourable to permafrost stability. The results can provide theoretical reference for stability prediction and protection of permafrost caused by humidification of climate.     

Thermal evolution of the Northern Cordillera Volcanic Province: implication for heat flow in remnant back-arc regions

ABSTRACT

Active and remnant back-arc regions do not follow a typical conductive lithosphere cooling model, but instead have an apparent two-stage cooling, defined by a high heat flow back-arc region during subduction and a second post-subduction heating event that extends elevated heat flow for several 10s million years. Numerical one-stage cooling models have not reproduced observed heat flow anomalies in active subduction zones using physically realistic parameters and require a secondary post-subduction heating mechanism. Here, an extension driven-volcanism model is developed to examine extension driven heating and volcanism as a mechanism to produce a prolonged thermal anomaly within back-arc lithosphere. This model is tested using the recorded thermal evolution of the Northern Cordillera Volcanic Province (NCVP), a Neogene-Quaternary alkaline volcanic province located in the remnant back-arc region of the Pacific-North American subduction zone in British Columbia, Canada. A single steady-state lithosphere geotherm does not intersect all previously published temperature estimates, suggesting previous data record the thermal evolution of the NCVP. Calculated geotherms at equilibrium with the minimum and maximum MELTS temperatures predict an increase in reduced mantle heat flow (Q_m ) from 43 to 72 mW/m² and lithosphere thinning from a depth of 87 to 48 km. The newly developed extension-volcanism model reproduced the calculated pre- and post-volcanism thermal regimes for the NCVP and supports that extension within the remnant back-arc could produce the present heat flow anomaly and volcanism. The model most readily produces volcanism when Q_m is ~45–65 mW/m², a typical range for back-arcs. Back-arc regions are prime locations for limited volcanism because their warmer thermal regime minimizes tectonic stress requirements to produce volcanism. Additionally, two-stage cooling of back-arcs can be explained with a time-dependent extension-volcanism thermal feedback mechanism that is possible because of the subduction driven pre-heating of back-arc regions.     

河北汤泉地热田地温场分布及其控制因素研究

汤泉位于河北省遵化市西北部,为山前丘陵地貌,地热资源丰富。本文对汤泉地热田内分布的诸多基岩热水井进行了钻孔测温,利用测温结果对该地热田地温场分布特征及控制因素进行了研究。研究发现:钻孔温度明显受地下水流的影响,绝大部分测温井表现为对流传热特征,个别表现为传导为主的传热特征;地温异常区域位于汤泉福泉宫和疗养院一带,异常中心呈两极分布,地热异常中心50 m埋深水温为51~54℃,100 m埋深水温可达60~67℃;该地热系统中地热水系地下水在深循环过程中,在正常的大地热流背景下被围岩逐渐加热所致;由花岗岩隔水底板构造形态所形成的隐伏盆地,构成了福泉宫至疗养院一带的蓄水构造;由于断裂构造切割花岗岩体,造成深部的热流沿断裂上升,混合并加热赋存于福泉宫至疗养院一带蓄水构造中的片麻岩裂隙水,形成该地段的地热异常现象;福泉宫地区和疗养院地区片麻岩含水层裂隙发育,使得深部热量能够快速到达浅部地层,并在浅部出现局部异常高温;汤泉地热田片麻岩热储层地热流体属于含岩盐地层溶滤的陆相沉积水,主要来源于大气降水。     

Influence of geologic layering on heat transport and storage in an aquifer thermal energy storage system

A modeling study was carried out to evaluate the influence of aquifer heterogeneity, as represented by geologic layering, on heat transport and storage in an aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) system in Agassiz, British Columbia, Canada. Two 3D heat transport models were developed and calibrated using the flow and heat transport code FEFLOW including: a “non-layered” model domain with homogeneous hydraulic and thermal properties; and, a “layered” model domain with variable hydraulic and thermal properties assigned to discrete geological units to represent aquifer heterogeneity. The base model (non-layered) shows limited sensitivity for the ranges of all thermal and hydraulic properties expected at the site; the model is most sensitive to vertical anisotropy and hydraulic gradient. Simulated and observed temperatures within the wells reflect a combination of screen placement and layering, with inconsistencies largely explained by the lateral continuity of high permeability layers represented in the model. Simulation of heat injection, storage and recovery show preferential transport along high permeability layers, resulting in longitudinal plume distortion, and overall higher short-term storage efficiencies.     

Influence of fluid flow on the regional thermal field: results from 3D numerical modelling for the area of Brandenburg (North German Basin)

We analyse the effect of fluid flow on the recent thermal field for the Brandenburg region (North German Basin) which is strongly affected by salt structures. The basin fill is modified by a thick layer of mobilized salt (Zechstein, Upper Permian) that decouples the overburden from deeper parts of the lithosphere and is responsible for thermal anomalies since salt has a distinctly higher thermal conductivity than the surrounding sediments and is impermeable to fluid flow. Numerical simulations of coupled fluid flow and heat transfer are carried out to investigate the influence of fluid flow on the shallow temperature field above the Zechstein salt, based on the finite element method. A comparison of results from conductive and coupled modelling reveals that the temperature field down to the low-permeable Triassic Muschelkalk is influenced by fluids, where the shallow low-permeable Tertiary Rupelian-clay is absent. Overall cooling is induced by forced convective forces, the depth range of which is controlled by the communication pathways between the different aquifers. Moreover, buoyancy-induced effects are found in response to temperature-dependent differences in the fluid density where forced convective forces are weak. The range of influence is controlled by the thickness and the permeability of the permeable strata above the Triassic Muschelkalk. With increasing depth, thermal conduction mainly controls the short-wavelength pattern of the temperature distribution, whereas the long-wavelength pattern results from interaction between the highly conductive crust and low-conductive sediments. Our results provide generic implications for basins affected by salt tectonics.     

Modeling of the 3D thermal field in the northeast German basin

The regional thermal field of the NE-German basin is modeled by a three-dimensional finite-element approach and is compared to classical one-dimensional extrapolations. Two alternative boundary conditions are assumed at the approximate depth of the Moho: a constant temperature distribution and a constant heat flow. Surprisingly, both results are almost identical down to approximately 10?km depth. Based on the models presented, the results are due to a complex interaction of different strata and the related regional variability of conductivities. In addition, the available temperature maps for different depths (Hurtig et al. 1992) indicate a relative high heat flow at the basin margins especially at the southern and eastern boundary. The models are able to reproduce the generalized pattern by regarding only a conductive heat flow. However, because both models are successful at shallow depth, we conclude that the current techniques of thermal modeling require improvement, even on the theoretical aspects of depth continuation and inversion.     

Discussion on heat source mechanism and geothermal system of Qinghai Gonghe-Guide Basin

The Qinghai Gonghe-Guide Basin together with the alternatively distributed mountainous region shows characteristics that the conductive geothermal resource of the basin has high geothermal gradient, the granite occurs in the bottom of borehole for geothermal exploration, and the convective hot springs in the basin-edge uplift fracture are in zonal distribution and with high-temperature geothermal water. There are still some divergences about the heat source mechanism of the basin. In this paper, queries to the view of mantle-derived heat source have been put forward, coming up with geochemical evidences to prove that the radiogenic heat of granite is the heat source within the mantle. Additionally, temperature curve is drawn based on the geothermal boring and geochemical geothermometer has been adopted for an estimation of the temperature and depth of the geothermal reservoir, it has been found that the surrounding mountains belong to the medium-temperature geothermal system while the area within the basin belongs to the high-temperature geothermal system with the temperature of borehole bottom reaching up to 175-180 ℃. In this paper, discussions on the problems existing in the calculation of geothermal gradient and the differences generated by the geothermal system have been carried out.     

Evidence for deep groundwater flow and convective heat transport in mountainous terrain, Delta County, Colorado, USA

The Tongue Creek watershed lies on the south flank of Grand Mesa in western Colorado, USA and is a site with 1.5 km of topographic relief, heat flow of 100 mW/m², thermal conductivity of 3.3 W m^–1 °C^–1, hydraulic conductivity of 10^-8 m/s, a water table that closely follows surface topography, and groundwater temperatures 3–15°C above mean surface temperatures. These data suggest that convective heat transport by groundwater flow has modified the thermal regime of the site. Steady state three-dimensional numerical simulations of heat flow, groundwater flow, and convective transport were used to model these thermal and hydrological data. The simulations provided estimates for the scale of hydraulic conductivity and bedrock base flow discharge within the watershed. The numerical models show that (1) complex three-dimensional flow systems develop with a range of scales from tens of meters to tens of kilometers; (2) mapped springs are frequently found at locations where contours of hydraulic head indicate strong vertical flow at the water table, and; (3) the distribution of groundwater temperatures in water wells as a function of surface elevation is predicted by the model.     

Detecting thermal anomalies within the Molasse Basin, southern Germany

The groundwater flow regime at great depth within the Molasse Basin (SW Germany) was studied. Data relevant for a flow model at 600–1,600 m depth are sparse in the western part of the basin. However, temperature measurements are available covering much of the area at a wide range of depths. Therefore, a thermal 3D steady-state model was set up with the aim of comparing modeled with observed subsurface temperatures. Stratigraphic information from many boreholes was also available, but only a few values of rock thermal conductivity and heat-production rate could be obtained. Some strong thermal residual anomalies were identified with respect to the purely conductive model, especially along fault zones, and within stratigraphic layers with high hydraulic conductivity. These anomalies can be explained by various advective heat-transport mechanisms, yet most explanations can be eliminated. The most plausible constellation explaining the major positive thermal anomalies of 10 Kelvin and more is a fault zone of E–W strike, intersected by an aquifer with flow parallel to the fault zone. This concept was investigated by using a simplified type model. In spite of some shortcomings, the method presented here can be used to identify temperature anomalies, and to identify possible explanations.     

Hydrochemistry and gas geochemistry of the northeastern Algerian geothermal waters

This study focuses on the water and gas chemistry of the northeastern Algerian thermal waters. The helium gas was used to detect the origin of the geothermal fluid. In the Guelma Basin, the heat flow map shows an anomaly of 120 ± 20 mW/m² linked to the highly conductive Triassic extrusion. The chemical database reveals the existence of three water types, Ca-SO₄/Na-Cl, which are related to evaporites and rich in halite and gypsum minerals. The third type is Ca (Na)-HCO₃, which mostly characterizes the carbonated Tellian sector. The origin of thermal waters using a gas-mixing model indicates a meteoric origin, except for the El Biban hot spring (W10), which shows a He/Ar ratio of 0.213, thus suggesting the presence of batholith. The helium distribution map indicates a lower ³He/⁴He ratio between 0 Ra and 0.04 Ra in the W10 and W15 samples, which is compatible with the crustal ratio. Reservoir temperatures estimated by silica geothermometers give temperatures less than 133 °C. The geothermal conceptual model suggests that a geothermal system was developed by the deep penetration of infiltrated cold waters to a depth of 2.5 km and then heated by a conductive heat source (batholith for El Biban case). The thermal waters rise up to the surface through the deep-seated fractures. During their ascension, they are mixed with shallow cold groundwater, which increase the Mg content and cause the immature classification of the water samples.     

湖南省地热水水文地球化学特征

为了查明湖南省地热水的赋存状况、估算研究区热储的温度、冷热水的混合比值及热水循环深度等信息,文章利用离子比值法、phreeqc计算矿物饱和指数法以及硅—焓模型等方法,对研究区69处地热水进行水文地球化学分析。结果表明:研究区地热水主要的水化学类型为HCO3-Ca和HCO3-Ca·Mg,其次为SO4·HCO3-Ca·Mg和SO4-Ca;77%地热水中钙镁离子的比值大于3,表明地热水的封存时间久;利用phreeqc计算出多矿物饱和指数,表明二氧化硅矿物最接近饱和状态;使用硅—焓混合模型估算研究区热储温度和冷水混入比例,表明热储温度范围为32~226 ℃,均值为140 ℃,冷水混入比例平均为85%,占比较大;利用地温梯度计算地热水循环深度范围为5~6 km,平均深度5.34 km。总之,湖南省地热水演化时间长,径流时间比较久,区域循环深度大,热液经热储增温后,经过长时间的径流、水岩作用等,地热水在高压以及热动力驱动下向地表循环,在地表附近与冷水混合后形成以低温为主的“未成熟”中低温热水。      

Heat flow and lithospheric thermal regime in the Northeast German Basin

New values of surface heat flow are reported for 13 deep borehole locations in the Northeast German Basin (NEGB) ranging from 68 to 91 mW m^− 2 with a mean of 77 ± 3 mW m^− 2. The values are derived from continuous temperature logs, measured thermal conductivity, and log-derived radiogenic heat production. The heat-flow values are supposed free of effects from surface palaeoclimatic temperature variations, from regional as well as local fluid flow and from thermal refraction in the vicinity of salt structures and thus represent unperturbed crustal heat flow. Two-D numerical lithospheric thermal models are developed for a 500 km section along the DEKORP-BASIN 9601 deep seismic line across the basin with a north-eastward extension across the Tornquist Zone. A detailed conceptual model of crustal structure and composition, thermal conductivity, and heat production distribution is developed. Different boundary conditions for the thickness of thermal lithosphere were used to fit surface heat flow. The best fit is achieved with a thickness of thermal lithosphere of about 75 km beneath the NEGB. This estimate is corroborated by seismological studies and somewhat less than typical for stabilized Phanerozoic lithosphere. Modelled Moho temperatures in the basin are about 800 °C; heat flow from the mantle is about 35 to 40 mW m^− 2. In the southernmost part of the section, beneath the Harz Mountains, higher Moho temperatures up to 900 to 1000 °C are shown. While the relatively high level of surface heat flow in the NEGB obviously is of longer wave length and related to lithosphere thickness, changes in crustal structure and composition are responsible for short-wave-length anomalies.