Settling velocities and entrainment thresholds of biogenic sands (shell fragments) under unidirectional flow

Settling velocities and entrainment thresholds of biogenic sedimentary particles, under unidirectional flow conditions, are derived on the basis of settling tower and laboratory flume experiments. Material consisting predominantly of equant blocks (shell fragments of Cerastoderma edule , density, ρ _s=2800 kg m⁻³) or of mica-like flakes and elongate rods ( Mytilus edulis fragments, ρ _s=2720 kg m⁻³) are used in separate series of experiments. Differences in the measured settling and threshold properties are related primarily to particle shape. The selection of a characteristic length scale for non-spherical grains is investigated by comparing two approaches used to define the grain size ( D ) of the sediment samples: grain settling and sieve analysis that are used to derive data for the threshold criteria, in terms of the Shields and Movability diagrams. The empirical curves effectively predict the threshold conditions for any grain shape, provided that grain size is defined in terms of grain settling velocity. However, a functional distinction is made between the characteristic `hydraulic' grain size, defined by grain settling for grain transport applications, and the actual (physical) grain size defined by sieve analysis.     

A unified model for bedform development and equilibrium under unidirectional,oscillatory and combined‐flows

The development of bedforms under unidirectional, oscillatory and combined‐flows results from temporal changes in sediment transport, flow and morphological response. In such flows, the bedform characteristics (for example, height, wavelength and shape) change over time, from their initiation to equilibrium with the imposed conditions, even if the flow conditions remain unchanged. These variations in bedform morphology during development are reflected in the sedimentary structures preserved in the rock record. Hence, understanding the time and morphological development in which bedforms evolve to an equilibrium stage is critical for informed reconstruction of the ancient sedimentary record. This article presents results from a laboratory flume study on bedform development and equilibrium development time conducted under purely unidirectional, purely oscillatory and combined‐flow conditions, which aimed to test and extend an empirical model developed in past work solely for unidirectional ripples. The present results yield a unified model for bedform development and equilibrium under unidirectional, oscillatory and combined‐flows. The experimental results show that the processes of bedform genesis and growth are common to all types of flows, and can be characterized into four stages: (i) incipient bedforms; (ii) growing bedforms; (iii) stabilizing bedforms; and (iv) fully developed bedforms. Furthermore, the development path of bedform; growth exhibits the same general trend for different flow types (for example, unidirectional, oscillatory and combined‐flows), bedform size (for example, small versus large ripples), bedform shape (for example, symmetrical or rounded), bedform planform geometry (for example, two‐dimensional versus three‐dimensional), flow velocities and sediment grain sizes. The equilibrium time for a wide range of bed configurations was determined and found to be inversely proportional to the sediment transport flux occurring for that flow condition.     

On the threshold of transport of sand-sized sediment under the combined influence of unidirectional and oscillatory flow

While the transport of sediment by unidirectional currents or by oscillatory (wave-induced) currents has been investigated, very little attention has been paid to the problem of the threshold of transport under the two mechanisms combined. Studies were carried out using cohesionless sand-sized (mean diameters: 142, 363, 771 and 1134 μm) quartz grains in a unidirectional flume, within which an oscillatory carriage had been installed. The experiments were carried out under unidirectional velocities ranging between 0 and 27 cm s^-1, combined with simulated wave-induced currents (at periods of 5 and 15 s) ranging from 0 to 35 cm s^-1. The threshold of transport was assessed, by visual observation, using the Yalin Criterion for unidirectional flow. This criterion permitted critical conditions to be estimated subjectively by observation of incipient transport from the flat beds. The results indicated the dependence of the critical threshold velocity combination on grain size and wave period. Thresholds tend to increase with increasing grain size or decreasing period. The grain-size dependence is predictable from existing empirical relationships for the separate mechanisms; statistical fluctuations in near-bed stress (bursting) however, are invoked to explain the wave period dependence. The latter effect acts in a reverse manner for wave and current combinations than for waves alone. Graphs are presented, relating grain size to critical threshold velocity combinations, to aid in the sedimentological interpretation of field data.     

单向明渠流与波浪作用下植被对水沙运动影响研究综述

作为河、湖以及滨海湿地生态系统中必不可少的组成部分,水生植被具有重要的生态服务价值,且许多生态服务价值是通过改变水体动力条件实现的。含植被水流研究不仅可用于科学阐明水生植被的生态环境效应,还能指导河湖生态系统修复及污染治理的工程实践。本文考虑单向明渠流与波浪2种水动力环境,对国内外有关水生植被对水流结构以及泥沙运动影响研究的主要成果进行梳理。单向明渠流条件下,植被对水动力的影响研究主要集中于植被对水流阻力的影响以及冠层内水体的紊动结构与紊动尺度特征;波浪条件下,植被对波高与波浪流速的减弱作用以及冠层内水体的时均与紊动结构特征是研究重点。受水动力条件控制,植被影响下的泥沙运动特征也受到广泛关注,且研究焦点为单向明渠流条件下水生植被对泥沙起动与输移的影响以及波浪条件下植被对床底泥沙再悬浮的影响。     

Threshold of motion of bivalve and gastropod shells under oscillatory flow in flume experiments

The threshold of motion of non-fragmented mollusc shells was studied for the first time under oscillatory flow. In this regard, flume experiments were used to investigate the threshold of motion of three bivalve and three gastropod species, two typical mollusc classes of coastal coquina deposits. The sieve diameters ranged from 2·0 to 15·9 mm. These experiments were performed on a flat-bottom setup under regular non-breaking waves (swell) produced by a flap-type wave generator. The critical Shields values for each species of mollusc were plotted against the sieve and nominal diameter. Moreover, the dimensionless Corey shape factor of the shells was evaluated in order to investigate the effect of mollusc shell shapes on the threshold of motion. According to their critical Shields parameter, the mollusc threshold data under oscillatory flow present smaller values than the siliciclastic sediments when considering their sieve diameter. In addition, the mollusc datasets are below the empirical curves built from siliciclastic grain data under current and waves. When considering the nominal diameter, the critical Shields parameter increases and the mollusc data are closer to siliciclastic sediments. Bivalves, which have a flat-concave shape (form factor: 0·27 to 0·37), have a higher critical Shields parameter for smaller particles and more uniform datasets than the gastropod scattered data, which have a rounded shape (form factor: 0·58 to 0·62) and have varied morphologies (ellipsoidal, conical and cubic). The comparison between previous current-driven threshold data of bioclastic sediment motion and the data of mollusc whole shells under oscillatory flow shows a fair correlation on the Shields diagram, in which all datasets are below the mean empirical curves for siliciclastic sediments. These findings indicate that the shape effect on the transport initiation is predominant for smaller shells. The use of the nominal diameter is satisfactory to improve the bioclastic and siliciclastic data correlation.     

应用多重分形法确定老挝窑房地区水系沉积物异常下限

文章阐述了传统的统计学方法与分形含量-求和法求取异常下限的理论模型及步骤,并利用Q-Q图直观地判定了老挝丰沙里省窑房地区水系沉积物中Au,Cu,Pb,Zn元素在地球化学场中不满足正态分布或对数正态分布,而是满足两个层次的分形分布,从而利用最小二乘法拟合各个层次的直线方程求出分维数D,直线相交处对应的ri为各元素的异常下限。地球化学异常场分维数的大小可代表地球化学过程的强烈程度;分形方法圈定的异常范围较大、较连续,利于圈定隐伏、半隐伏矿体形成的弱异常,在红层建造的地层中效果更为显著。     

Effect of velocity hiatuses in oscillatory flow on migration and geometry of ripples: wave‐flume experiments

A series of wave‐flume experiments was conducted to closely look at characteristics of geometry and migration of wave‐generated ripples, with particular reference to the effect of velocity ‘hiatuses’ during which the near‐bed flow velocity becomes much smaller than the threshold of sediment movement. Three types of wave patterns were generated: two types for simulating waves with intervening velocity hiatuses; and regular waves for comparison purposes. In the former two types, two different wavelengths of water waves were generated alternately in the course of a wave test: the wave with a longer wavelength was set large enough to mobilize the bottom sediment, whereas the wave with a shorter wavelength was set too small to mobilize the sediment. The former two types were designed to be different in sequence of convexity and concavity of wave patterns. The sequence with the convex–concave longer wave and successive convex–concave shorter wave was described as a ‘zero‐up‐crossing’ wave pattern, and the inverse sequence was described as a ‘zero‐down‐crossing’ wave pattern. The ripples developed under oscillatory flow with intervening hiatuses manifested the following characteristics in geometry and migration. (i) The morphological characteristics of ripples, namely wavelength, height and the ripple steepness, are unaffected by the intervening hiatuses of velocity. (ii) The directions of ripple migration under the zero‐up‐crossing and zero‐down‐crossing wave patterns corresponded well with the directions of the flow immediately before onset of the hiatuses. (iii) The observation of sand particle movement on the ripple surface indicated that, under the zero‐up‐crossing waves, the velocity hiatus prevents the entrained sediment cloud from being thrown onshore, and thus the sediment grains thrown onshore are fewer than those thrown offshore. As a result of the sediment movement over one wave‐cycle, the net sediment transport is directed offshore under the zero‐up‐crossing wave pattern. (iv) The velocity of ripple migration was highly correlated with acceleration skewness. Under most of the zero‐up‐crossing (zero‐down‐crossing) wave patterns, flow acceleration skewed negative (positive) and ripples migrated offshore (onshore).     

Application of FLATModel, a 2D finite volume code, to debris flows in the northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula

FLATModel is a two-dimensional shallow-water approximation code with corrections and modifications that create a simulation tool adapted to debris-flows behaviour. FLATModel uses the finite volume method with the numerical implementation of the Godunov scheme and includes correction terms regarding the effect of flow over high slopes and curvature. Additionally, the stop-and-go phenomenon, the basal entrainment and a correction regarding the front inclination of the final deposit are incorporated into FLATModel. In addition, different flow resistance laws were integrated in the numerical code including Bingham, Herschel–Bulkley and Voellmy fluid model. Firstly, our numerical model was validated using analytical solutions of a dam-break scenario and published data on a laboratory experiment. Secondly, three real events, which occurred in the northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, were back-calculated. Although field observations of the three events are not very detailed, the back-analyses revealed interesting patterns on the flow dynamics, and the numerical results generally showed good agreement with field data. Comparing the different flow resistance laws, the Voellmy fluid model presents the best behaviour regarding both the flow behaviour and the deposit characteristics. Preliminary simulation runs incorporating the effect of basal entrainment offered satisfactory results, although the final volume is rather sensitive on the selected friction angle of channel-bed material. The outcomes regarding the correction of the calculated front inclination of the final deposit showed that this implementation strongly improves the simulation results and better represents steep fronts of final deposits.     

Effect of temperature on the dissolution and thermal alteration of combined amino acids fixed in natural sediment under simulated hydrothermal conditions

Seafloor sediment containing biogenic amino acids was heated with NaCl solutions at 50–200 °C for 240 h to investigate the dissolution process of amino acids and evaluate their stabilities under hydrothermal conditions. Dissolved amino acids in the combined phase (dissolved combined amino acids, DCAAs) and free phase (dissolved free amino acids, DFAAs) were rapidly released into the solution during heating. The amount of DCAAs in the solutions was 4–9 times higher than the amount of DFAAs at each temperature. When heated at ⩽ 100 °C, most of the total dissolved hydrolyzable amino acids (TDHAAs) were in the combined form (DCAAs/TDHAAs ratios > 0.9). The compositions of the DCAAs in solutions heated at ⩽ 100 °C were similar to that of the total hydrolyzable amino acids (THAAs) of the initial sediment, indicating that the DCAAs, which are derived from organisms and biodebris in the sediment, are barely altered during the hydrothermal reaction at these temperatures. On the other hand, the DCAAs/TDHAAs ratios were 0.72 and 0.57 at 150 and 200 °C, respectively, and the compositions of the DCAAs at 150 and 200 °C were significantly different from that of the initial THAAs. In addition, non-protein amino acids (β-alanine and γ-aminobutyric acid), which are sensitive biochemical indicators of the diagenetic alteration of natural organic matter, drastically increased to 80.9% of the DCAAs after heating at 200 °C. These results suggests that DCAAs are thermally unstable in the hydrothermal solutions at ⩾ 150 °C. These DCAA would be transformed into thermally stable geo-polymers such as humic-like substances and hydrolyzable kerogens.     

变化环境下武江超定量洪水门限值响应规律及影响

世界众多江河洪水超定量(POT)系列门限值已发生变化,门限值选取不当会影响频率分析合理性.结合历史洪水资料,采用洪水POT理论分析变化环境下武江门限值响应规律及影响.结果表明:武江流域下垫面植被和径流系数在1991年明显改变,变化环境下不仅洪水门限值显著增大,且超过特定量级洪水的发生次数也在增加,POT模型能捕捉洪水在量级和发生次数方面的变化信息.分别选用变化环境前后门限值来推算设计洪峰,当重现期大于200年时,坪石站差异度达19.21％,犁市站达8.12％以上.选用变化环境后高门限值可有效提高线型对大洪水的拟合程度和设计洪水计算精度.     

变化环境下武江超定量洪水门限值响应规律及影响

世界众多江河洪水超定量(POT)系列门限值已发生变化,门限值选取不当会影响频率分析合理性。结合历史洪水资料,采用洪水POT理论分析变化环境下武江门限值响应规律及影响。结果表明:武江流域下垫面植被和径流系数在1991年明显改变,变化环境下不仅洪水门限值显著增大,且超过特定量级洪水的发生次数也在增加,POT模型能捕捉洪水在量级和发生次数方面的变化信息。分别选用变化环境前后门限值来推算设计洪峰,当重现期大于200年时,坪石站差异度达19.21%,犁市站达8.12%以上。选用变化环境后高门限值可有效提高线型对大洪水的拟合程度和设计洪水计算精度。     

Methylmercury and total mercury distribution in the sediments of Baihua Reservoir, Guizhou Province, China

Mercury is an important pollutant in lakes. Methylmercury （MeHg）, the most toxic mercury species, which can be formed from inorganic mercury in lakes, can be bioaccumulated into high concentration in food chain and result in a potential threat to human beings. Sediments play an important role for the Hg biogeochemistry in the aquatic systems： Mercury methylation has been shown to be fastest in the surfacial sediments, where the microbial activity is highest. The formation of MeHg in lakes suggests that sediments and/or near-shore wetlands can be the sources of MeHg in aquatic environments. The Baihua Reservoir, located in the suburb of Guiyang, was impounded in 1966. From the 1970s to the 1990s, Guizhou Organic Chemical Plant which used inorganic mercury as catalyst to produce acetic acid, was responsible for the discharge of waste water with high mercury content.     

雅浦海沟北部深渊和超深渊沉积物的物质组成、来源和形成过程研究

为探究雅浦海沟北部深渊、超深渊沉积物的组成、来源和形成特征,以1 cm分层对采自该海域不同深度的五根柱状沉积物样品的0~8 cm沉积层进行了扫描电子显微镜(SEM)观察和X射线能谱(EDS)分析,并且分析了这些样品的含水率,锰结核含量, Al、Ca、Fe、Mn、Ti、Mg等6种常量金属和Ba、Co、Cr、Ni、Pb、Sr、V、Cu、Zn等9种微量金属元素含量,以及总有机碳(TOC)含量等参数。结果表明,研究区域沉积物主要为深海软泥沉积,是不同年代沉积物的复杂混合,包含以盘星石为代表的颗石藻、海绵骨针、放射虫和硅藻等多种微体古生物化石以及辉石、重晶石、钛铁矿、长石等多种矿物。沉积组分主要来自生物源、火山源、陆源和海底热液,其中陆源沉积出现于海沟东侧深渊区。海沟西侧崖壁的沉积物比东侧崖壁的沉积物更容易发育锰结核。研究区域沉积物含水率较高并且颗粒较大,其含水率随深度增加呈减少趋势。研究区域超深渊站位沉积物的TOC和微体古生物化石含量均高于深渊站位,存在明显的漏斗效应。整体上海沟西侧崖壁沉积物含水率和TOC含量低于东侧崖壁的沉积物。自更新世以来,雅浦海沟北部的碳酸钙补偿深度(CCD)线从4 568 m以深变为4 435 m至4 568 m之间。研究区域的沉积环境为氧化环境,其0~8 cm沉积层的古老沉积物与现代沉积物发生了混合和再沉积作用,形成年代跨度极大。研究区域沉积物的形成受到海沟坡度、水动力环境、重力滑塌、浊流沉积、火山活动、漏斗效应等多种因素的显著影响。     

白龙江中上游泥石流形成条件与成灾模式探讨

白龙江中上游泥石流发育极为严重,危害、威胁巨大,研究该区泥石流的成灾模式和致灾模式对泥石流灾害防治、国土空间规划、生态文明建设具有重要的科学意义和实践指导价值。文中在分析白龙江流域中上游241条泥石流形成条件的基础上,对泥石流的成灾模式、致灾模式及泥石流防治进行了分析。研究结果表明：（1）泥石流受地形地貌影响显著,高差大于1000 m占总数74.3%,主沟沟床纵比降>200‰占总数93.4%;（2）众多滑坡体物源沿着坪定-化马断裂带呈条带状分布,泥石流物源主要来源于千枚岩、变质砂岩、残坡积层、黄土等软弱地层的崩塌、滑坡体,物源分布与下伏基岩坡向关系不大;（3）该区泥石流按地貌特征分主要有沟谷型泥石流（占总数69.7%）、坡面型泥石流（占总数30.3%）,基于固体物质补给方式划分泥石流成灾模式主要有重力侵蚀补给型（占总数71%）、坡面侵蚀冲蚀补给型（占总数10%）、沟床侵蚀补给型（占总数19%）;（4）泥石流主要的致灾模式为溃决-冲毁、冲积-淤埋、爬高-堆积、侵蚀-坍塌、淤埋-掩埋、堰塞-次生灾害;（5）重力侵蚀补给型泥石流重点防治沟内重大灾害体,坡面侵蚀冲蚀补给型泥石流防治以拦挡、排导工程为主,沟道侵蚀补给型泥石流防治以清淤、排导为主。     

苏州城市河道底泥对磷酸盐的吸附与释放特征

为了探讨苏州古城区河道底泥对磷酸盐的吸附-释放特征,文中分别从改变上覆水的pH值、底泥吸附-释放动力学和等温吸附实验三个方面进行了研究。结果表明:(1)随着上覆水pH值的增大,苏州河道底泥对磷的吸附量逐渐减小;(2)底泥对磷的吸附过程是一个复合动力学过程,通常包括快吸附和慢吸附两个过程。底泥对磷的快速吸附在2h内快速进行,之后为慢吸附过程,到6h左右,基本达到一种动态吸附平衡;底泥对磷释放的动力学过程也包括快释放和慢释放过程。底泥释放磷在1·5h内快速进行,之后进入慢释放过程,磷酸盐含量基本稳定,达到释放平衡;(3)底泥具有较大的吸附磷的能力。随着上覆水的磷酸盐浓度增高,底泥吸附磷酸盐的量也增加。上覆水与底泥的比值越大,底泥对磷的吸附率越小。     

河南西峡盆地上白垩统河流及湖泊沉积中的遗迹组构

河南西峡盆地上白垩统马家村组沉积厚度巨大,达1 960 m,由辫状河沉积、曲流河沉积和湖泊沉积组成。在河流与湖泊沉积中,发育丰富的遗迹化石,共6种类型,分别为Skolithos linearis、Cylindricumichnosp、Palaeophycus tubularis“J”形潜穴、垂直分枝潜穴和垂直螺旋潜穴。从形态分析,大多数为居住迹,按照遗迹化石产出岩层的岩性、扰动特征和残留遗迹等总体特征,将所发现的遗迹化石层划分为两类遗迹组构,即软底组构和僵底组构。前者主要发育在纹层状极细砂岩和粉砂岩中,潜穴密度大,属种单一,包括Skolithos组构和Palaeophycus组构;后者主要发育在厚层泥岩中,潜穴密度较大,类型稍多,包括由Cylindricum ichnosp、垂直分枝潜穴J形潜穴和垂直螺旋潜穴所组成的遗迹组构。与报道过的其他地区陆相遗迹化石的对比表明,随着时间的推移,河流沉积中的组构特征在白垩纪有明显变化,而浅湖沉积中的遗迹组构表明造迹生物的扰动能力显著加强。     

穿黄隧洞束窄河道对河段水沙特性的影响分析

利用建立的平面二维非恒定水流泥沙数学模型,在上游来流为10000年一遇的特大洪水过程情况下,就初步拟定的南水北调中线穿黄方案之一的孤柏嘴线路3 0km隧洞工程方案,穿黄隧洞束窄河道对河段水流流态、泥沙运动及河床变形的影响进行了计算和分析比较。计算结果表明,在该洪水过程情况下,穿黄隧洞束窄河道对河段水沙运动特性有一定影响,但影响不大。     

The glacial and interstadial sediments at the Burn of Benholm,Kincardineshire: evidence for onshore pre‐Devensian ice movement in northeast Scotland

Pebbly clays and diamictons containing marine shell fragments and peat lenses exposed beneath subglacially deposited Late Devensian till at the Burn of Benholm provide new insights into the glacial history of Quaternary sequences in eastern Scotland. The peat yielded pollen of interstadial affinity (including Bruckenthalia spiculifolia) and non‐finite radiocarbon dates. Comparisons with other pre‐Late Devensian pollen records in northern Scotland suggest that the peat lenses are remnants of an Early Devensian interstadial deposit, of Oxygen Isotope Substage 5c or 5a age. Reworked faunal assemblages in the shelly sediments include Quaternary marine molluscs of low boreal aspect, as well as Mesozoic and Palaeozoic microfossils. Amino acid ratios from fragments of Arctica islandica suggest that the shells are of Oxygen Isotope Stage 9 age or older. The fabric and composition of the shelly sediments are consistent with their emplacement as deformation till during the onshore movement of glacially transported rafts of marine sediment. Folded and sheared contacts between the shelly deposits, peat lenses and the overlying Late Devensian till indicate that the fossiliferous sediments were glacitectonised during the main Late Devensian glaciation, when ice moved from Strathmore and overrode the site from the southwest. British Geological Survey. © NERC 2000.     

Present environment and historic changes from the record of lake sediments, Dhaka City, Bangladesh

Changes in the urban environment of Dhaka City have been evaluated from the geochemical compositions of bottom sediments from two lakes, Gulshan-1 and –2. Abundances of Pb, Zn, Fe₂O₃ and total sulfur in a Gulshan-1 core gradually increase toward the sediment–water interface. Three stages of condition change can be recognized in Gulshan-1, based on trace metal concentration patterns. The basal Stage I corresponds to background Dhaka sedimentation, whereas gradual increase in Stage II represents the beginning of pollution. Marked increases in Pb and Zn in Stage III reflect rapid urban development and increased emissions to the atmosphere. The condition of the Dhaka environment is compared to that of Japan based on Zn–Fe₂O₃ and Pb–Fe₂O₃ relations. Zn–Fe₂O₃ ratios in Stage I Dhaka sediments are similar to normal Japanese sediments, whereas Stage II data lie on the same trend as Japan urban sediments. Dhaka Stage III samples have greater Zn:Fe₂O₃ ratios than Japanese urban sediments, suggesting Zn pollution from poorly-controlled industrial sources. In contrast, the Dhaka Pb–Fe₂O₃ trend lies between normal and urban Japanese sediments. Although vehicle emissions in Dhaka are now significant, the data suggest that Pb pollution from this source remains in its early stages.     

新构造运动影响下的雅鲁藏布江水系发育和河流地貌特征

雅鲁藏布江(雅江)水系发育和河流地貌演变受新构造运动的强烈影响。通过野外调查,结合SRTM(航天飞机雷达地形测绘使命)数据分析和Google Earth三维地图功能,对雅江河网形态及河流地貌特征进行了分析,并采用EH4电磁成像系统测量了雅江及其支流宽谷河道淤沙深度。研究发现,雅江河网呈现格状水系特点,同时具有枝状河网的拓扑性质,这主要是由于新构造运动的影响,河网发育过程中受到南北向挤压和东西向拉伸所至。青藏高原阶段性不均匀抬升形成了宽窄相间的藕节状河道形态,宽阔河段河道为辫状河型,而窄深河段为深切的V型河谷、单一顺直河型,纵剖面上构成裂点。裂点河段地块相对上升较快,阻滞了水流和泥沙,上游河段大量卵石和泥沙在河谷里淤积深达800多米,形成了平整而宽阔的U型河谷。整个雅江宽谷段泥沙淤积量约0.9万亿m³。