An electromagnetic modelling tool for the detection of hydrocarbons in the subsoil

Electromagnetic geophysical methods, such as ground-penetrating radar (GPR), have proved to be optimal tools for detecting and mapping near-surface contaminants. GPR has the capability of mapping the location of hydrocarbon pools on the basis of contrasts in the effective permittivity and conductivity of the subsoil. At radar frequencies (50 MHz to 1 GHz), hydrocarbons have a relative permittivity ranging from 2 to 30, compared with a permittivity for water of 80. Moreover, their conductivity ranges from zero to 10 mS/m, against values of 200 mS/m and more for salt water. These differences indicate that water/hydrocarbon interfaces in a porous medium are electromagnetically 'visible'. In order to quantify the hydrocarbon saturation we developed a model for the electromagnetic properties of a subsoil composed of sand and clay/silt, and partially saturated with air, water and hydrocarbon. A self-similar theory is used for the sandy component and a transversely isotropic constitutive equation for the shaly component, which is assumed to possess a laminated structure. The model is first verified with experimental data and then used to obtain the properties of soils partially saturated with methanol and aviation gasoline. Finally, a GPR forward-modelling method computes the radargrams of a typical hydrocarbon spill, illustrating the sensitivity of the technique to the type of pore-fluid. The model and the simulation algorithm provide an interpretation methodology to distinguish different pore-fluids and to quantify their degree of saturation.     

Model track studies on fouled ballast using ground penetrating radar and multichannel analysis of surface wave

Ballast fouling is created by the breakdown of aggregates or outside contamination by coal dust from coal trains, or from soil intrusion beneath rail track. Due to ballast fouling, the conditions of rail track can be deteriorated considerably depending on the type of fouling material and the degree of fouling. So far there is no comprehensive guideline available to identify the critical degree of fouling for different types of fouling materials. This paper presents the identification of degree of fouling and types of fouling using non-destructive testing, namely seismic surface-wave and ground penetrating radar (GPR) survey. To understand this, a model rail track with different degree of fouling has been constructed in Civil engineering laboratory, University of Wollongong, Australia. Shear wave velocity obtained from seismic survey has been employed to identify the degree of fouling and types of fouling material. It is found that shear wave velocity of fouled ballast increases initially, reaches optimum fouling point (OFP), and decreases when the fouling increases. The degree of fouling corresponding after which the shear wave velocity of fouled ballast will be smaller than that of clean ballast is called the critical fouling point (CFP). Ground penetrating radar with four different ground coupled antennas (500 MHz, 800 MHz, 1.6 GHz and 2.3 GHz) was also used to identify the ballast fouling condition. It is found that the 800 MHz ground coupled antenna gives a better signal in assessing the ballast fouling condition. Seismic survey is relatively slow when compared to GPR survey however it gives quantifiable results. In contrast, GPR survey is faster and better in estimating the depth of fouling.     

Inversion of multiple intersecting high-resolution crosshole GPR profiles for hydrological characterization at the Boise Hydrogeophysical Research Site

The integration of geophysical data into the subsurface characterization problem has been shown in many cases to significantly improve hydrological knowledge by providing information at spatial scales and locations that is unattainable using conventional hydrological measurement techniques. In particular, crosshole ground-penetrating radar (GPR) tomography has shown much promise in hydrology because of its ability to provide highly detailed images of subsurface radar wave velocity, which is strongly linked to soil water content. Here, we develop and demonstrate a procedure for inverting together multiple crosshole GPR data sets in order to characterize the spatial distribution of radar wave velocity below the water table at the Boise Hydrogeophysical Research Site (BHRS) near Boise, Idaho, USA. Specifically, we jointly invert 31 intersecting crosshole GPR profiles to obtain a highly resolved and consistent radar velocity model along the various profile directions. The model is found to be strongly correlated with complementary neutron porosity-log data and is further corroborated by larger-scale structural information at the BHRS. This work is an important prerequisite to using crosshole GPR data together with existing hydrological measurements for improved groundwater flow and contaminant transport modeling.     

机载探地雷达数值模拟及逆时偏移成像

机载探地雷达可以用于人类无法到达的危险地区、植被严重覆盖的地下目标体探测,然而由于机载探地雷达的特殊性,影响机载探地雷达探测效果的因素包括天线的极化方向、天线的飞行高度以及地表粗糙度等.为了研究这些影响因素与探测效果之间的关系,用三维时间域有限差分模拟电磁波的传播过程,以沙漠地区地下空洞掩体的机载探地雷达探测为实例,分别模拟了不同天线极化方向、天线高度及地表粗糙度情况下的机载探地雷达剖面,分析了各因素对机载探地雷达探测地下空洞目标体的影响.天线极化方向与目标体走向垂直更有利于地下目标体探测;天线距离地表越近,可以获得更高分辨率的雷达剖面;沙漠地表起伏越大,雷达剖面中的散射杂波能量越强,浅部地下目标体信号容易被掩盖.为了消除起伏地形造成的散射杂波,提出用逆时偏移成像技术对共炮集机载探地雷达数据进行偏移成像,成像结果优于基尔霍夫偏移成像结果.     

三维探地雷达技术在道路塌陷空洞探测中的应用

道路塌陷空洞一直是威胁交通安全运行的重要隐患,对道路塌陷空洞的探测方法进行研究具有重大的现实意义。研究工作通过实例探讨三维探地雷达（GPR）对道路塌陷区进行探测的方法技术及其应用效果。为查明道路塌陷空洞的空间分布特征,在塌陷区布设了共23条测线,1.0 m×0.5 m的三维测网并进行数据采集;通过对雷达数据进行处理,获得不同测线、不同方向的三维雷达剖面。结合地质情况对上述图件进行综合分析与解释,准确地查明塌陷空洞的位置、埋深及发育程度;经开挖验证,解译结果可靠。工程实践表明,三维探地雷达技术可以快速、高效地应用于道路塌陷探测中,其探测结果可为塌陷区后续施工以及安全防治提供参考。      

高频电磁波在不同目标体上反射图像特征研究

针对高频电磁波技术在北京勘察设计行业应用的空白,本次研究利用探地雷达技术对北京地区典型工程目标体进行了研究.针对不同的地下目标体对高频电磁波所反映出的不同反射特性,总结出一些图像特征规律.通过建立对各类雷达探测图像进行地质解释的理论依据和基础,本次研究对层状介质、地下管道、CFG桩、碎石夯扩桩、水泥土桩和洞穴等目标体的雷达图像特征进行了较系统的研究和总结,为今后日常的检测工作奠定了很好的基础.     

Full-scale model testing on a ballastless high-speed railway under simulated train moving loads

Model testing in laboratory, as an effective alternative to field measurement, provides valuable data to understand railway׳s dynamic behaviors under train moving loads. This paper presents comprehensive experimental results on track vibration and soil response of a ballastless high-speed railway from a full-scale model testing with simulated train moving loads at various speeds. A portion of a realistic ballastless railway comprising slab track, roadbed, subgrade, and subsoil was constructed in a larger steel box. A computer-controlled sequential loading system was developed to generate equivalent vertical loadings at the track structure for simulating the dynamic excitations due to train׳s movements. Comparisons with the field measurements show that the proposed model testing can accurately reproduce dynamic behaviors of the track structure and underlying soils under train moving loads. The attenuation characteristics of dynamic soil stresses in a ballastless slab track is found to have distinct differences from that in a ballasted track. The model testing results provide better understanding of the influence of dynamic soil–structure interaction and train speed on the response of track structure and soils.     

Could tsunami risk be underestimated using core‐based reconstructions? Lessons from ground penetrating radar

Where should we take cores for palaeotsunami research? It is generally considered that local depressions with low energy environments such as wetlands are one of the best places. However, it is also recognized that the presence or absence of palaeotsunami deposits (and their relative thickness) is highly dependent upon subsoil microtopography. In the beach ridge system of Ishinomaki Plain, Japan, several palaeotsunami deposits linked to past Japan Trench earthquakes have been reported. However, the number of palaeotsunami deposits reported at individual sites varies considerably. This study used ground penetrating radar (GPR) combined with geological evidence to better understand the relationship between palaeotopography and palaeotsunami deposit characteristics. The subsurface topography of the ~3000–4000 bp beach ridge was reconstructed using GPR data coupled with core surveys of the underlying sediments. We noted that the number (and thickness) of the palaeotsunami deposits inferred from the cores was controlled by the palaeotopography. Namely, a larger number of events and thicker palaeotsunami deposits were observed in depressions in the subsurface microtopography. We noted a total of three palaeotsunami deposits dated to between 1700 and 3000 cal bp , but they were only observed together in 11% of the core sites. This result is important for tsunami risk assessments that use the sedimentary evidence of past events because we may well be underestimating the number of tsunamis that have occurred. We suggest that GPR is an efficient and invaluable tool to help researchers identify the most appropriate places to carry out geological fieldwork in order to provide a more comprehensive understanding of past tsunami activity. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

探地雷达在探测隐伏活动断层中的应用

以东昆仑断裂带东部采用探地雷达探测隐伏活动断层为例。 在浅覆盖区, 利用合理的采集参数和数据处理流程; 雷达剖面图像能够清晰地显示出隐伏断层的形态特征和岩土分层; 结合沉积序列, 可以分析和评价断层的活动性。 实验证明, 探地雷达是一种有效探测浅覆盖区隐伏活动断层的方法。     

地质雷达在乌拉山山前断裂探测中的应用

地质雷达是利用电磁波对地下不同电性介质进行探测的地球物理仪器，其探测速率快、分辨率高，可弥补探槽和其他地球物理方法存在探测盲区的缺陷，正在越来越多地应用于活动断层探测领域。本文以乌拉山山前断裂为例开展地质雷达探测工作，使用无人机正射影像技术对测线进行地形校正，获得断层浅部地质雷达图像。研究结果表明，本文研究方法能有效反映探槽揭露的地层单元和断层分布。本次探测中，雷达波形图像特征为:浅地表的土壤层反射波总体较弱；粗粒沉积为主的砾石层反射波总体较强，同相轴连续性好；细粒沉积为主的砂层反射波弱于砾石层，波形以中、高频为主，同相轴具有弱连续性；对于洪冲积地区，地质雷达能分辨具有一定特征的地层单元，这为剖面图像的断层识别提供了标志；通过无人机正射影像技术对地质雷达测线进行地形校正，有利于获得更为准确的探测结果。     

无砟轨动车组运行激励场地振动谱分析

为研究CRH2动车组在无砟轨道段运行引起的场地加速度振动的频谱特性,本文对我国首条无砟轨道段(渝遂铁路二岩隧道—湾里头隧道段)动车组运行时的场地振动进行了现场实测;对实测竖向振动加速度时程进行1/3倍频谱分析表明:地面竖向振动加速度随着与振源距离的增大而明显衰减,随车速增大场地振动强度增强;应用正交HHT变换,对加速度时程进行了Hilbert谱分析,获得了地面竖向振动加速度的主频为10~120Hz、振动传播高频成分衰减较快等频谱特性;最后,将Hilbert边际谱与傅里叶谱进行了对比分析,得到了两种方法分析振动信号频谱特性表现出的差异性。     

The use of GPR for characterizing underground weathered profiles in the sub-humid tropics

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) has been used as a tool to access information about ground subsurface features. Such information is very important for different types of studies, varying from those related to archeological research to those studying geological elements of bedrock. More recently, however, GPR has been increasingly applied to environmental studies, especially for soil research. This paper presents the results of an application of GPR for the study of weathered profiles. GPR was used to discover the degree of trustworthiness of the information on the ground subsurface through the interpretation of the results of the radar sections as well as the data collected from boreholes, which reached until 21 m. The results show a relatively high degree of details obtained by GPR, indicating the possibility of speeding up ground subsurface surveys related to geomorphological, geological, and pedological studies.     

Effect of unsupported sleepers on wheel/rail normal load

The paper reviews some important published papers on the effects of railway track imperfections on track dynamic behavior, and investigates the effect of unsupported sleepers on the normal load of wheel/rail in detail through a numerical simulation. The numerical simulation is based on a coupling dynamic model of vehicle–track. In the model, the vehicle is modeled as a multi-body system, and the track is considered as a 3-layer model with rails, sleepers, and ballast masses. Each rail of the track is modeled with a Timoshenko beam resting on discrete sleepers. The lateral, vertical, and torsional deformations of the beam are taken into account. The sleepers are assumed to move backward at a constant speed to simulate the vehicle running along the track at the same speed, and therefore such a track model can consider the effect of the discrete support by sleepers on the coupling dynamic behavior of the vehicle and track in the simulation. In calculating the coupled vehicle and track dynamics, Hertzian contact theory and the theory by Shen et al. are, respectively, used to calculate the normal forces and the creep forces between the wheels and the rails. The motion equations of the vehicle–track are solved by means of an explicit integration method. A nonlinear spring and a nonlinear damper are used to simulate a gap between the unsupported sleeper and the ballast mass. The numerical results obtained indicate that the gaps between the unsupported sleepers and ballast masses have a great influence on the normal load of the wheel and the rail.     

基于UPML边界条件的交替方向隐式有限差分法GPR全波场数值模拟

交替方向隐式差分(ADI-FDTD)法突破了Courand-Friedrich-Levy(CFL)条件的约束,具有无条件稳定的特点;而单轴各向异性完全匹配层(UPML)边界条件具有宽频带吸收特性,不需要对电场和磁场进行分裂,迭代公式简单,便于编程的特点.综合两者优势,本文提出了基于UPML边界条件的ADI-FDTD探地雷达数值模拟算法,通过对3个二维Maxwell方程进行离散化,推导了GPR波的ADI-FDTD及其UPML边界条件的两个子时间步的迭代差分公式,并分别给出了详细计算步骤.在此基础上,开发了相应的模拟程序,应用该程序对两个GPR模型进行了正演模拟,得到了两个正演模型的wiggle图、扫描图与全波场快照.通过分析这些雷达剖面图与波场快照,可以了解雷达波形在空间中的传播过程及变化规律,有助于雷达资料更可靠、更准确的解释.模拟结果表明,基于UPML边界条件的ADI-FDTD算法可取较大的时间步长,消除了截断边界处的强反射,能对简单与复杂GPR模型进行快速、高效模拟.     

基于双二次插值的探地雷达有限元数值模拟

从探地雷达(GPR)满足的波动方程出发,详细介绍了二维GPR模型单元剖分、二次插值、数值积分和有限元刚度矩阵总体合成的GPR有限元求解过程.为解决数值模拟时截断边界处的超强反射,采用Clay Bout透射边界条件对雷达波进行衰减,进而压制了来自截断边界处的反射波.在满足时间步长与空间网格差分稳定性前提下,采用中心差分法对GPR有限元方程进行离散,并用不完全LU分解预处理的BICGSTAB算法求解系数方程组,然后编制了基于双二次插值的GPR有限元正演模拟matlab程序.运用该程序分别对矩形和"V"字形两个典型地电模型进行正演计算,得到了正演剖面图,将该正演剖面图与基于线性插值的FEM算法的正演剖面图做了对比分析.结果表明基于双二次插值FEM算法相比基于双线性插值FEM算法异常响应更明显,具有更高的模拟精度,更有利于指导雷达剖面的数据解译.     

An application of the synthetic emitter-array method to improve GPR signals

Methods that employ arrays of emitters are potentially useful in improving weak or ambiguous signals in ground penetrating radar (GPR) prospecting. As in the seismic case, the electromagnetic responses from the subsurface can be obtained by employing true composite sources or synthesized from single emitter responses that are acquired with variable offset, both possibilities leading to similar results. In this article, the synthetic emitter-array method is examined as a way of improving GPR signals. Modeling of transmitted wave-fronts is carried out to analyze how the targets can be illuminated so that the reflected signals are effectively reinforced. The method is applied to different targets. A methodology that simultaneously increases the signal to noise ratio and the lateral coherence of the events is examined in order to facilitate the interpretation of the GPR data. Finally, the synthetic emitter-array method is successfully applied in a case study to determine the width and depth of mud walls at the Palo Blanco archaeological site in Argentina.     

Measuring snow ablation rates in alpine terrain with a mobile multioffset ground‐penetrating radar system

Ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) has become a promising technique in the field of snow hydrological research. It is commonly used to measure snow depth, density, and water equivalent over large distances or along gridded snow courses. Having built and tested a mobile lightweight set‐up, we demonstrate that GPR is capable of accurately measuring snow ablation rates in complex alpine terrain. Our set‐up was optimized for efficient measurements and consisted of a multioffset radar with four pairs of antennas mounted to a plastic sled, which was small enough to permit safe and convenient operations. Repeated measurements at intervals of 2 to 7 days were taken during the 2014/2015 winter season along 10 profiles of 50 to 200 m length within two valleys located in the eastern Swiss Alps. Resulting GPR‐based data of snow depth, density, and water equivalent, as well as their respective change over time, were in good agreement with concurrent manual measurements, in particular if accurate alignment between repeated overpasses could be achieved. Corresponding root‐mean‐square error (RMSE) values amounted to 4.2 cm for snow depth, 17 mm for snow water equivalent, and 22 kg/m³ for snow density, with similar RMSE values for corresponding differential data. With this performance, the presented radar set‐up has the potential to provide exciting new and extensive datasets to validate snowmelt models or to complement lidar‐based snow surveys.     

Determination of electromagnetic wave velocity in horizontally layered sedimentary target: A ground-penetrating radar study from Silurian limestones,Estonia

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a non-destructive geophysical technique to obtain information about shallow subsurface by transmitting electromagnetic waves into the ground and registering signals reflected from objects or layers with different dielectric properties. The present GPR study was conducted in Võhmuta limestone quarry in Estonia in order to describe the relationship between GRP responses to the variations in petrophysical properties. Sub-horizontally oriented cores for petrophysical measurements were drilled from the side wall of the quarry. The GPR profiles were run at the sloped trench floor and on the top of side wall in order to correlate traceable reflections with physical properties. Based on three techniques: (i) hyperbola fitting, (ii) wide angle reflection and refraction (WARR), and (iii) topographic, a mean electromagnetic wave velocity value of 9.25 cm ns^?1 (corresponding to relative dielectric permittivity of 10.5) was found to describe the sequence and was used for time-to-depth conversion. Examination of radar images against petrophysical properties revealed that major reflections appear in levels where the changes in porosity occur.