Watershed structural influences on the distributions of stream network water and solute travel times under baseflow conditions

Watershed structure influences the timing, magnitude, and spatial location of water and solute entry to stream networks. In turn, stream reach transport velocities and stream network geometry (travel distances) further influence the timing of export from watersheds. Here, we examine how watershed and stream network organization can affect travel times of water from delivery to the stream network to arrival at the watershed outlet. We analysed watershed structure and network geometry and quantified the relationship between stream discharge and solute velocity across six study watersheds (11.4 to 62.8 km²) located in the Sawtooth Mountains of central Idaho, USA. Based on these analyses, we developed stream network travel time functions for each watershed. We found that watershed structure, stream network geometry, and the variable magnitude of inputs across the network can have a pronounced affect on water travel distances and velocities within a stream network. Accordingly, a sample taken at the watershed outlet is composed of water and solutes sourced from across the watershed that experienced a range of travel times in the stream network. We suggest that understanding and quantifying stream network travel time distributions are valuable for deconvolving signals observed at watershed outlets into their spatial and temporal sources, and separating terrestrial and in‐channel hydrological, biogeochemical, and ecological influences on in‐stream observations. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluating the reliability of time series analysis to estimate variable riparian travel times by numerical groundwater modelling

The transition zones between rivers and adjacent riparian aquifers are locations of high biogeochemical activities that contribute to a removal of potentially hazardous substances in the aquatic system. The potential of the removal processes depends highly on subsurface water travel times, which can be determined by using the propagation of electrical conductivity (EC) signal from the river into the riparian aquifer. Although this method has been applied and verified in many studies, we observe possible limitations for the usage of EC fluctuation analysis. Our findings are based on EC time series analyses during storm events and artificial hydropeaks induced by watermill operations. Travel times derived by cross‐correlation analysis were compared with travel times calculated based on backward particle tracking of a calibrated transient numerical groundwater flow model. The cross‐correlation method produced only reasonable travel times for the artificial hydropeaks. In contrast, cross‐correlation analysis of the EC data during natural storm events resulted in implausibly negative or unrealistically low travel times for the bulk of the data sets. We conclude that the reason for this behaviour is, first, the low EC contrast between river and groundwater in connection with a strong damping of the infiltrating river EC signal into the subsurface during storm events. Second, the existence of old and less‐mineralized riparian water between the river and the monitoring well resulted in bank‐storage‐driven EC breakthrough curves with earlier arrival times and the subsequent estimation of implausible riparian travel times.     

On the relations between the hydrological dynamical systems of water budget,travel time,response time and tracer concentrations

Using previous results on extended Petri Nets (EPN), we present the relations between various hydrological dynamical systems (HDSys) derived from the water budget. Once the water budget has been implemented, there is a consistent way of getting the equations for backward travel time distributions, for forward response time distributions and for the concentration of a solute or tracer. We show that the water budget has a correspondence of one to many with the backward travel time distributions. In fact, to any one of the water budget equations there correspond as many equations as there are input precipitation events. The backward travel time distributions are related to the response time distributions by Niemi's relationship and, if there are n outputs, by the definition of n − 1 partition functions. These determine what fraction of the water volume injected into the control volume at a specific time t_in goes asymptotically to a specific output. Given the backward travel time distributions, the output concentration of a solute or tracer also depends on the input concentration. The paper clarifies the complicated relations described above by taking [Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 20, 299–328] as an example from literature. Once the appropriate information is presented, it is shown how these HDSys can be solved simultaneously without duplicating calculations. Then, it is also shown that, under the hypothesis of uniform mixing of water ages within each reservoir, these systems can be solved exactly.     

多层介质中利用sPn与Pn到时差确定震源深度的研究

为利用sPn与Pn波的走时差测定震源深度,进一步提高地震震源深度的测定精度,推导多层介质下sPn与Pn波的走时差与震源深度的关系,发现走时差与震中距无关,只与震源深度及区域地壳速度模型有关.震源在同一层中,走时差曲线的斜率不变,而当震源位于不同层中时,sPn-Pn走时差曲线的斜率不同,并呈分段直线的走时差曲线形态.地壳...     

Prediction of regional-scale groundwater recharge and nitrate storage in the vadose zone: A comparison between a global model and a regional model

Extensive nitrogen loads at the soil surface exceed plant uptake and soil biochemical capacity, and therefore lead to nitrogen accumulation in the deep vadose zone. Studies have shown that stored nitrogen in the vadose zone can eventually reach the water table and affect the quality of groundwater resources. Recently, global scale models have been implemented to quantify nitrate storage and nitrate travel time in the vadose zone. These global models are simplistic and relatively easy to implement and therefore facilitate analysis of the considered transport processes at a regional scale with no further requirements. However, the suitability of applying these models at a regional scale has not been tested. Here, we evaluate, for the first time, the performance and utility of global scale models at the regional scale. Applied to the Loess Plateau of China, we compare estimates of groundwater recharge and nitrate storage derived from global scale models with results from a regional scale approach utilizing the Richards and advection-dispersion equations. The estimated nitrate storage was compared to nitrate observations collected in the deep vadose zone (>50 m) at five sites across the Loess Plateau. Although both models predict similar spatial patterns of nitrate storage, the recharge fluxes were three times smaller and the nitrate storage was two times higher compared with the regional model. The results suggest that global scale models are a potentially useful screening tool, but require refinement for local scale applications.     

最大熵原理在地震时间间隔和震级分布中的应用

基于最大熵原理,得到地震时间间隔和地震震级的概率分布函数。根据时间间隔分布,得到地震发震概率,当概率上升达到警界值时,可对云南5级以上中强地震做出预测。6个月以内中短期预测对应率为91％;3个月以内,短临期预测对应率为73％。根据震级分布,得到用最大熵原理求出的地震理论发生次数,理论发震次数与实际较为接近。用最大熵原理求出了云南不同地区不同震级档次5级以上中强地震的复发周期。分析认为,云南7级以上大震危险性在逐步逼近,西部危险性高于东部。