Observational manifestations of the first protogalaxies in the 21 cm line

The absorption properties of the first low-mass protogalaxies (mini-halos) forming at high redshifts in the 21-cm line of neutral hydrogen are considered. The absorption properties of these protogalaxies depend strongly on both their mass and evolutionary status. The optical depths in the line reach ∼0.1–0.2 for small impact parameters of the line of sight. As a protogalaxy is compressed, the influence of gas accretion can be seen, manifest as a non-monotonic frequency dependence of the optical depth. The absorption characteristics in the 21-cm line are determined by the thermal and dynamical evolution of the gas in the protogalaxies. Since the theoretical line width in the observer’s rest frame is 1–6 kHz and the expected distance between lines 8.4 kHz, then the lines from low mass protogalaxies can be resolved using low frequency interferometers that exist or are being constructed.     

Dynamics of bubbles in supernovae and turbulent vortices

We consider the motion of a bubble in a central acceleration field created by gravity or a centrifugal force. In the former case, the bubble moves outwards from and, in the latter, towards the center. We have calculated the characteristic time needed for a bubble to leave or reach the center. The solution obtained provides insight into the processes of thermonuclear supernovae and combustion; in other words, into the interaction between a flame and a turbulent vortex. In the case of combustion, a light bubble of burnt material propagates towards the axis of a strong turbulent vortex faster than it drifts in the direction of rotation of the vortex. It is expected that the development of bubbles should prevent the formation of “pockets” at the flame front, similar to those predicted by a simplified model of turbulent combustion in a constant density flux. In the case of a thermonuclear supernova in a deflagration burning regime, it is shown that light products of burning rise from the center of the white dwarf substantially more rapidly than the thermonuclear flame front propagates. As a result, a flame cannot completely burn the central part of the star, and instead is pushed to the outer layers of the white dwarf. The effect of bubble motion (large-scale convection) makes spherically symmetric models for thermonuclear supernovae unrealistic, which is of prime importance for the supernova spectrum and energy. The motion of bubbles is even faster in the case of a rotating white dwarf; under certain conditions, the centrifugal force may dominate over the gravitational force. To test this theory, we have carried out numerical simulations of supernovae explosions for various sizes of the burned region in the core of the presupernova. We have derived a relation between the rate of large-scale convection and the size of the burned region, which is specified by the rate of the deflagration in the thermonuclear burning.     

Cooling and fragmentation of gas in rotating protogalaxies

The dynamical, thermal, and chemical evolution of gas in protogalaxies with non-zero angular momentum is considered. It is shown that, in protogalaxies with a total mass (dark and baryonic) of M = 10⁷ M⊙ at redshifts z = 12 whose gas has rotational angular momentum (spin parameter λ ≳ 0.005), a disk-like structure forms during the initial collapse of the galaxy, in contrast to non-rotating protogalaxies, whose collapse is spherically symmetric. The existence of initial angular momentumfor gas in protogalaxies increases the cooling time of the gas, delaying the formation of the first stars. Increasing the rotational angular momentum of the gas leads to cooling of the gas to lower temperatures (T < 100 K), at which HD molecules dominate in the cooling, while the total mass of cool gas (T < 1000 K) is decreased. The stability of disk-like structures in the central regions of protogalaxies is analyzed. It is shown that the disk that is formed is gravitationally unstable, and multiple fragmentation at various distances from the center is possible when the initial rotational angular momentum of the protogalaxy is increased. The possible birth of several stars in the first protogalaxies is discussed.     

Type Ia supernovae: Non-standard candles of the universe

We analyze the influence of the evolution of light absorption by gray dust in the host galaxies of type Ia supernovae (SN Ia) and the evolution of the mean combined mass of close-binary carbon-oxygen white dwarfs merging due to gravitational waves (SN Ia precursors) on the interpretation of Hubble diagrams for SN Ia. A significant increase in the mean SN Ia energy due to the higher combined masses of merging dwarfs should be observable at redshifts z > 2. The observed relation between the distance moduli and redshifts of SN Ia can be interpreted not only as evidence for accelerated expansion of the Universe, but also as indicating time variations of the gray-dust absorption of light from these supernovae in various types of host galaxies, observational selection effects, and the decreasing mean combined masses of merging degenerate dwarfs.     

北京城区表层土壤多元素分布特征及重金属元素污染评价

采用地统计学和GIS相结合的方法,对北京城区表层土壤样品54项指标的地球化学背景值进行了详细研究,认为微量元素中Ni、Cr和As含量值存在极高值点,具有点源污染特征;Hg、Cd、Zn、Pb和Cu具有面状污染特点。对这5种重金属元素开展研究,统计北京城区五环内每个区域的数据并结合元素含量空间分布特征,指出元素含量平均值由市中心向周边地区逐渐降低。采用内梅罗指数法对表层土壤重金属元素污染进行评价,认为北京市城区表层土壤大部分已经被重金属元素所污染。分析了造成土壤重金属元素污染的可能影响因素,主要包括工业活动、化石燃料燃烧、建筑涂料、机动车尾气等,并提出了污染防控的建议。     

Rare earth elements in the sedimentary cycle: a pilot study of the first leg

A pilot study with Holocene fluvial sands was undertaken in order to evaluate the effects of source rock composition and climate on natural abundances of rare elements (REE) in the first leg of the sedimentary cycle. We have analysed the medium grained sand fraction of samples collected from first order streams exclusively draining granitic plutons in Montana (semi-arid), Georgia (humid), and in South Carolina (humid). Despite compositional differences between parent plutons the REE distribution patterns (but not the total absolute abundances) of the daughter sands are very similar. Averages of the three areas have a La/Lu ratio of ～ 103 showing a depletion of heavy REE with respect to an ‘average granite’ (La/Lu = 79) or the composite of North American Shales (NAS; La/Lu = 55). Also, the Eu/Sm ratio in sands from these areas is ～ 0·22 which is very close to the NAS ratio of 0·21. However, the overall REE distribution of these sands is not similar to that of NAS in any way. We conclude that the major rock type, but neither its minor subdivisions nor the climate (in the source area), controls the REE distribution patterns in first cycle daughter sands. But, the total and the parent rock-normalized abundances of REE in sands from the humid areas are much lower than those in sands from the arid areas.     

Desorption and coagulation of trace elements during estuarine mixing

Mixing experiments of seawater and the Hudson and Mississippi riverwaters with radiotracer spikes show that Co, Mn, Cs, Cd, Zn and Ba will be desorbed from river suspended particles, while significant fractions of “dissolved” Fe, Sn, Bi, Ce and Hg will be coagulated during estuarine mixing.     

Condensation of heavy elements on dust grains in interstellar clouds

A possibility of an efficient condensation of heavy elements, such as iron, on the surface of dust grains in interstellar molecular clouds is studied. A high rate of dust destruction in the interstellar medium from one side, and a high degree of heavy elements depletion from the other indicate that the freezing-out of metals should be efficient in interstellar (predominantly molecular) clouds. This is possible only due to betatron acceleration of dust grains behind shocks that originate under intersection of supersonic turbulent flow. Estimates of the heavy elements depletion due to condensation on the surface of dust grains are given.     

Dissolved trace elements and heavy metals in the Danjiangkou Reservoir,China

Concentrations of trace elements and heavy metals (Al, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Sr, V and Zn) in the Danjiangkou Reservoir, the water source area of the Middle Route of China’s interbasin South to North Water Transfer Project, were analyzed using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometer (ICP-AES) and compared with the national and international standards for drinking water. The results indicated that concentrations of As, Pb, Sb and Se in the Reservoir exceeded the standards and they would pose health risk for residents in the region and the water receiving areas of the interbasin water transfer project. Spatial and temporal variability of the trace elements and heavy metals in the Reservoir implies their mixed sources of natural processing and anthropogenic activities in the upper drainage of the Reservoir. The research results would help develop water resource management and conservation strategy for the interbasin water transfer project.     

土壤-水稻系统中重金属元素与其他元素之间的相互作用

通过相关关系的统计分析,探讨了四川省61件水稻籽实及其根系土中重金属元素与其他元素间的相互关系。研究结果表明:①水稻籽实对重金属元素、微量元素、大量元素的富集系数差异很大,元素富集系数之间具有显著的相关性;②水稻籽实中重金属元素的含量与土壤中部分元素的含量之间存在着显著的相关关系;③水稻籽实重金属元素的含量与籽实中其他元素含量之间的相关关系显著。结合元素之间的相互作用对元素地球化学行为的影响,评价了作物籽实中重金属元素的危害程度,为土壤修复提供了新思路。     

青藏高原东南部冰川雪冰重金属元素特征

雪冰可以很好地记录大气重金属元素的含量水平。基于2015年6月在青藏高原东南部（藏东南）地区采集的4条冰川的雪坑和表层雪冰样品,分析并讨论了雪冰重金属元素特征。结果显示,Pb、Cd等重金属元素含量与高原其他地区雪冰中一致,含量总体较低,显著低于天山和阿尔卑斯山雪冰中Pb和Cd含量,与格陵兰地区雪冰Pb和Cd含量大致相当,但显著高于南极地区雪冰中Pb和Cd含量,这表明藏东南雪冰中元素含量仍代表全球背景地区大气环境状况。元素富集因子结果显示,Pb、Cr、Cd、Cu、Zn、Mo、Sn等发生强烈富集（EFs>10）,而以地壳源为主的元素如Fe、Ti、Mn、Th等则富集较弱。主成分分析表明,不同重金属元素的污染来源存在差异;结合后向气团轨迹分析,推断藏东南地区雪冰元素含量不可避免地受到南亚地区人类活动排放污染物的显著影响。目前,藏东南地区冰川呈显著退缩状态,强烈的冰川消融可释放大量的重金属元素进入河流,可能对下游地区的人类生产生活以及生态系统产生重要影响。     

Numerical modeling of two-phase binary fluid mixing using mixed finite elements

Diffusion coefficients of dense gases in liquids can be measured by considering two-phase binary nonequilibrium fluid mixing in a closed cell with a fixed volume. This process is based on convection and diffusion in each phase. Numerical simulation of the mixing often requires accurate algorithms. In this paper, we design two efficient numerical methods for simulating the mixing of two-phase binary fluids in one-dimensional, highly permeable media. Mathematical model for isothermal compositional two-phase flow in porous media is established based on Darcy’s law, material balance, local thermodynamic equilibrium for the phases, and diffusion across the phases. The time-lag and operator-splitting techniques are used to decompose each convection–diffusion equation into two steps: diffusion step and convection step. The Mixed finite element (MFE) method is used for diffusion equation because it can achieve a high-order and stable approximation of both the scalar variable and the diffusive fluxes across grid–cell interfaces. We employ the characteristic finite element method with moving mesh to track the liquid–gas interface. Based on the above schemes, we propose two methods: single-domain and two-domain methods. The main difference between two methods is that the two-domain method utilizes the assumption of sharp interface between two fluid phases, while the single-domain method allows fractional saturation level. Two-domain method treats the gas domain and the liquid domain separately. Because liquid–gas interface moves with time, the two-domain method needs work with a moving mesh. On the other hand, the single-domain method allows the use of a fixed mesh. We derive the formulas to compute the diffusive flux for MFE in both methods. The single-domain method is extended to multiple dimensions. Numerical results indicate that both methods can accurately describe the evolution of the pressure and liquid level.     

The behaviour of the rare earth elements during mixing of river and sea waters

Rare earth element concentrations have been measured in organic-rich Luce river water and coastal sea water. Concentrations (e.g. ～350?1850 pmol/kg Nd in the Water of Luce and ～45?350 pmol/ kg Nd in Luce Bay) are related to the presence of particles, with 30–60% of the REE associated with >0.4?0.7 μm particles, and to riverine Fe concentrations. REE fractionation occurs in the river water the submicrometre river water is heavy REE enriched whereas the coarser fraction has a more shale-like REE pattern.Laboratory experiments show that the REE in organic-rich river waters are chiefly associated with Feorganic matter colloids which flocculate during estuarine mixing. Preferential removal of heavy REE (～95%) relative to light REE (～60%) occurs, but no Ce anomaly is developed. In contrast, no REE removal occurs during estuarine mixing with organic-poor river water.     

土壤中重金属元素Pb、Cd地球化学行为影响因素研究

通过研究湖南洞庭湖地区水稻土中Pb、Cd与土壤有机质、粘粒和pH值的关系,结果表明,(1)土壤中有机质含量与Cd、Pb有着显著的正相关性,土壤中有机质含量增加可明显降低Cd和Pb的离子态和可交换态含量。(2)随着粘粒含量增加,Pb和Cd离子可交换态占全量的比值略有增加,这说明粘粒表面吸附的Pb和Cd容易进入植物体中,对生态系统安全具有危害的组分。(3)Cd离子交换态与土壤pH值呈显著相关关系,土壤酸化使Cd的离子交换态比例上升,可直接导致农作物中Cd含量增加,防止土壤酸化是控制Cd对生态系统危害的有效途径;Pb的离子交换态与全量的比值与pH值具有显著的相关性,对于Pb污染严重的土壤,保持土壤pH值在弱酸性至弱碱性范围,防止土壤酸化和盐碱化,可以降低Pb危害。土壤有机质含量、pH值等是控制重金属元素地球化学行为的重要因素之一。     

Flocculation of heavy metals during mixing of freshwater with Caspian Sea water

Flocculation of colloidal size fraction for Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni and Mn was investigated on a series of mixtures with water salinities ranging from 1.5 to 9.5‰ during mixing of Haraz River with the Caspian Sea water. The flocculation trend of Zn (85.5%) > Mn (55.2%) > Cu (39.6%) > Pb (33.7%) > Ni (11.3%) indicates that Cu, Zn, Pb and Mn have non-conservative behavior and Ni has relatively conservative behavior during estuarine mixing. Highest flocculation of heavy metals occurs between salinities of 1.5 and 4.5‰. Statistical analysis indicates that the flocculation of Cu, Zn and Ni is governed by pH and total nitrogen.     

山东沂南东部土壤-玉米系统重金属元素与其他元素间相互作用及其生物有效性研究

在沂南县东部地区重金属元素高的背景状态下,为研究土壤-玉米系统中重金属元素和与人体健康关系密切的微量元素间的相互作用及其生物有效性,在研究区采集了50件玉米籽实及其根系土土壤样品。通过样品中重金属元素和微量元素含量分析,统计其含量及富集特征,探讨了玉米籽实及其根系土土壤中各元素间的相互关系。通过玉米根、茎、叶、籽实中重金属元素含量及根系土土壤中重金属元素形态分析,总结了玉米根、茎、叶、籽实以及根系土土壤中重金属元素的分布规律并对玉米籽实进行了安全性评价。结果显示: ①各元素含量在玉米根系土土壤和玉米籽实中差异明显,玉米籽实中元素富集系数间多呈显著-极显著正相关; ②玉米籽实中As、Ni、Se含量与土壤中元素含量多呈拮抗作用,玉米籽实中元素含量间多呈协同作用; ③Cu、Zn、Cd、Hg主要富集于叶中,Cr、Pb、Ni、As主要富集于根中,除1件玉米籽实样品外,其他样品均符合绿色、无公害等相关标准,研究区玉米籽实安全性较好。研究成果可为农业高质量发展、土壤污染综合治理提供支撑。     

The role of large-scale convection in supernovae explosions

We present the results of simulations of Type Ia and II supernovae explosions taking into account the rotation of the initial configuration. The main idea is development of a large-scale convective instability which affects strongly the geometry of the explosion. For Type Ia supernova a jet-like structure of the ejecta was obtained. An important point here is the possibility of continuing consecutive flares, produced when the fresh thermonuclear fuel is ignited in the central part of the star. This fuel is moved to the center by convective fluxes from the outer stellar layers. For Type II supernova a large-scale convection results in a non-equilibrium neutronization of the matter. Large bubbles, moving to the surface, contain high-energy neutrinos from the central region of the proto-neutron stellar core. The following ejection of these neutrinos to the stellar envelope gives enough energy support to the bounce shock, which finally destroys the envelope producing a non-spherical explosion.     

Observations of five supernovae in 1995–1997

We present the results of photometric observations of the type Ia supernovae SN 1995al, 1996bo, 1996bk, the type Ib/c supernova SN 1997X, and the type II supernova SN 1996an. The photometric characteristics of SN 1995al are close to the average for type Ia supernovae. Our analysis has revealed possible peculiarities in the light-curve shape and deviations from the average photometric parameters for SN 1996bk and 1996bo. Sn 1996an probably belongs to type IIP. The light curve of SN 1997X resembles that of the type Ic supernova SN 1994I. Light-curve parameters and absolute magnitude estimates are presented.