Evaluation of cloud properties in the NOAA/NCEP global forecast system using multiple satellite products

Knowledge of cloud properties and their vertical structure is important for meteorological studies due to their impact on both the Earth’s radiation budget and adiabatic heating within the atmosphere. The objective of this study is to evaluate bulk cloud properties and vertical distribution simulated by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Centers for Environmental Prediction Global Forecast System (GFS) using three global satellite products. Cloud variables evaluated include the occurrence and fraction of clouds in up to three layers, cloud optical depth, liquid water path, and ice water path. Cloud vertical structure data are retrieved from both active (CloudSat/CALIPSO) and passive sensors and are subsequently compared with GFS model results. In general, the GFS model captures the spatial patterns of hydrometeors reasonably well and follows the general features seen in satellite measurements, but large discrepancies exist in low-level cloud properties. More boundary layer clouds over the interior continents were generated by the GFS model whereas satellite retrievals showed more low-level clouds over oceans. Although the frequencies of global multi-layer clouds from observations are similar to those from the model, latitudinal variations show discrepancies in terms of structure and pattern. The modeled cloud optical depth over storm track region and subtropical region is less than that from the passive sensor and is overestimated for deep convective clouds. The distributions of ice water path (IWP) agree better with satellite observations than do liquid water path (LWP) distributions. Discrepancies in LWP/IWP distributions between observations and the model are attributed to differences in cloud water mixing ratio and mean relative humidity fields, which are major control variables determining the formation of clouds.     

Evaluation of radiative parameterizations using an explicit cloud microphysical model

Based on the simulations with a 3-D large-eddy simulation model of marine cloud-topped boundary layer that includes explicit cloud physics formulation, we have evaluated the effect of spatial inhomogeneities in cloud macro- and microstructure on the performance of parameterizations of optical depth commonly used in large-scale models. We have shown that an accurate parameterization of the grid average optical depth alone is not sufficient for correct determination of cloud transmittance to solar radiation due to the non-linear dependence between these two variables.The problem can be solved by introducing the “equivalent” value of optical depth that differs from the ordinarily defined mean optical depth by a factor α_t, that depends on the degree of cloud inhomogeneity and ranges from about 2 in the cumulus case to about 1.3 in the stratiform case.The accuracy of cloud optical depth parameterizations commonly employed in largescale models has been evaluated using the data from the explicit microphysical model as a benchmark for comparison. It has been shown that in the cumulus cloud case the parameterized expressions can err by as much as 100%. The error is smaller for more uniform stratiform clouds, where the error for some parameterizations varied in the 10–40% range. The best results are given by parameterizations that account for vertical stratification of parameters on which they are based. However, the error given by a particular parameterization varies and is different at cloud and surface levels. The results show the limitations of the existing simplified parameterizations and illustrate the scope and complexity of the cloud radiation parameterization problem.     

Comparison of ground-based and satellite measurements of total ozone

Presented are the results of studies dealing with the analysis of discrepancies in the data on total ozone measurements carried out using different instruments. The results of measurements with ground-based spectral (UV and visible) and filter instruments and spaceborne nadir scanning instruments are used as initial data. As a result of the analysis of relative systematic and random discrepancies, it is concluded that the data of filter instruments are of insufficient accuracy for diagnosing total ozone values. The analysis of linear trends revealed the presence of considerable differences in the data series obtained by spectral instruments. It is concluded that there is every reason to hope for obtaining the most homogeneous measurement data in Russia using the instruments operating in the Chappuis band.     

Diagnosis of the marine low cloud simulation in the NCAR community earth system model (CESM) and the NCEP global forecast system (GFS)-modular ocean model v4 (MOM4) coupled model

We present a diagnostic analysis of the marine low cloud climatology simulated by two state-of-the-art coupled atmosphere–ocean models: the National Center for Atmospheric Research community earth system model version 1 (CESM1) and the National Center for Environmental Predictions global forecasting system-modular ocean model version 4 (GFS-MOM4) coupled model. In the CESM1, the coastal stratocumulus (Sc)-topped planetary boundary layers (PBLs) in the subtropical Eastern Pacific are well-simulated but the climatological transition from Sc to shallow cumulus (Cu) is too abrupt and occurs too close to the coast. By contrast, in the GFS-MOM4 the coastal Sc amount and PBL depth are severely underestimated while the transition from Sc to shallow Cu is “delayed” and offshore Sc cover is too extensive in the subtropical Eastern Pacific. We discuss the possible connections between these differences in the simulations and differences in the parameterizations of shallow convection and boundary layer turbulence in the two models.     

基于NCEP/GFS资料的中国东部地区雷暴预报研究

基于来自美国国家环境预测中心(NCEP)的GFS(Global Forecasting System)分析及预报场资料,将多个能够表征雷暴发生动力、热力环境的对流因子作为预报因子,通过费希尔判别准则及逐个引入因子法,建立集合多个对流参数的雷暴预报模型,从而进行较长时效(12—24 h)的区域性雷暴预报。依据临界成功指数(CSI)最高的原则,建立最优预报模型,不同地区所选用的对流参数不同,雷暴模型预报雷暴发生与否的临界值也不同,从而不仅能够得到较好的集合多个对流参数的雷暴区域性预报,还能充分考虑不同地区雷暴发生的地域性特点和气候背景。将建立的预报方法应用于2012年6和9月的两次强对流过程的预报,发现雷暴预报模型较好地预报出两次过程的雷暴落区。进一步,为了能够在强天气预报中客观有效地区分出雷暴与暴雨区,引入集合动力因子暴雨预报方法。集合动力因子暴雨预报方法在诊断和追踪强降水的发展演变中表现凸出,而集合对流参数雷暴预报方法则对包含短时强降水、冰雹、大风等在内的对流性天气有较好反映,综合两套预报方法各自的优势,建立了集成动力因子-对流参数强天气预报方法,用于降水和雷暴的预报,同时对雷暴加降水型、雷暴无降水型、降水无雷暴型等强天气进行区分预报。对中国多个典型城市的预报效果分析发现,该方法不仅能够较好地预报出较长时效(24 h)的雷暴和降水落区,对区分降水雷暴、无降水雷暴和无雷暴降水也表现出一定的能力。     

Examination of the quality of GOSAT/CAI cloud flag data over Beijing using ground-based cloud data

It has been several years since the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite （GOSAT） began to observe the distribution of CO2 and CH4 over the globe from space. Results from Thermal and Near-infrared Sensor for Carbon Observation-Cloud and Aerosol Imager （TANSO-CAI） cloud screening are necessary for the retrieval of CO2 and CH4 gas concentrations for GOSAT TANSO-Fourier Transform Spectrometer （FTS） observations. In this study, TANSO-CAI cloud flag data were compared with ground-based cloud data collected by an all-sky imager （ASI） over Beijing from June 2009 to May 2012 to examine the data quality. The results showed that the CAI has an obvious cloudy tendency bias over Beijing, especially in winter. The main reason might be that heavy aerosols in the sky are incorrectly determined as cloudy pixels by the CAI algorithm. Results also showed that the CAI algorithm sometimes neglects some high thin cirrus cloud over this area.     

Airborne measurements of the impact of ground-based glaciogenic cloud seeding on orographic precipitation

Data from in situ probes and a vertically-pointing mm-wave Doppler radar aboard a research aircraft are used to study the cloud microphysical effect of glaciogenic seeding of cold-season orographic clouds. A previous study (Geerts et al., 2010) has shown that radar reflectivity tends to be higher during seeding periods in a shallow layer above the ground downwind of ground-based silver iodide (AgI) nuclei generators. This finding is based on seven flights, conducted over a mountain in Wyoming (the Unites States), each with a no-seeding period followed by a seeding period. In order to assess this impact, geographically fixed flight tracks were flown over a target mountain, both upwind and downwind of the AgI generators. This paper examines data from the same flights for further evidence of the cloud seeding impact. Composite radar data show that the low-level reflectivity increase is best defined upwind of the mountain crest and downwind of the point where the cloud base intersects the terrain. The main argument that this increase can be attributed to AgI seeding is that it is confined to a shallow layer near the ground where the flow is turbulent. Yet during two flights when clouds were cumuliform and coherent updrafts to flight level were recorded by the radar, the seeding impact was evident in the flight-level updrafts (about 610 m above the mountain peak) as a significant increase in the ice crystal concentration in all size bins. The seeding effect appears short-lived as it is not apparent just downwind of the crest.     

Effects of Dynamic Vegetation on Global Climate Simulation Using the NCEP GFS and SSiB4/TRIFFID

Two global experiments were carried out to investigate the effects of dynamic vegetation processes on numerical climate simulations from 1948 to 2008.The NCEP G...     

Profiles of cloud fraction and water content deduced from ground-based solar radiation measurements

Ground-based measured solar radiation fluxes are used to derive simultaneously cloud water content and cloud fraction cover. In this paper we present a new method for prognostically inferring cloud microphysical properties based on previous work of Chou and Suarez. A look up table method combined with simulated annealing process is associated with the Chou and Suarez radiation transfer model called CLIRAD-SW. This model which is of great sensitivity has been validated for several atmospheres. Calculations here are conducted for an equivalent period of one year of measurement realized by the MINREST-LRE program for the Yaoundé meteorological station during the year 1984 and are focused on the previously derived average solar days similar to those proposed by Klein and more representative of the monthly solar radiation profile. In order to reduce computational time, mean values of liquid, mixed phase and ice cloud effective radius are used according to those proposed by Chou M.D. As part of our retrieving method, diffuse and global fluxes calculated for each set of cloud and aerosol microphysical characteristics are compared with the fluxes measured during the corresponding period. The obtained results are in very good agreement with those fluxes with relative errors ranging from 0.001% to 1.9% for diffuse flux and from 0.0009% to 2% for global flux. Mean cloud fraction profile obtained was generally well correlated with seasons whereas the correlation of cloud water content with seasons was not very good. However, the characteristic trend was in good agreement with the change in seasons. The overall agreement observed suggests that the method is capable of characterizing cloud water content and fraction for the given period of the day and the year although the lack of in situ measurements was a limitation for a valuable verification of the accuracy of the method.     

Scale decomposition of atmospheric water budget over West Africa during the monsoon 2006 from NCEP/GFS analyses

NCEP/GFS analysis is used to investigate the scale dependence and the interplay between the terms of the atmospheric water budget over West Africa using a dedicated decomposition methodology. The focus is on a 2-month period within the active monsoon period of 2006. Results show that the dominant scales of seasonal mean precipitation and moisture flux divergence over West Africa during the monsoon period are large scales (greater than 1,400 km) except over topography, where mean values of small scales (smaller than 900 km) are strong. Correlations between moisture flux divergences in monsoon and African Easterly Jet layers and precipitation indicate that precipitation is strongly correlated to moisture flux divergence via both large-scale and small-scale processes, but the correlation signal is quite different depending on the region and vertical layer considered. The analysis of the scales associated with the rainfall and the local evaporation over 3 different regions shows that positive correlation exists over the ocean between precipitation and evaporation especially at large scale. Over the continent south of the Sahel, the correlation is negative and driven by large scale. Over the northern part of Sahel, positive correlation is found, only at small scales during the active monsoon period. Lag correlation reveals that the maximum evaporation over the Sahel occurs 1–3 days after the maximum precipitation with maximum contribution from small-scale processes during the first day. This study shows that NCEP/GFS reproduces well the known atmospheric water budget features. It also reveals a new scale dependence of the relative role of each term of the atmospheric water budget. This indicates that such scale decomposition approach is helpful to clarify the functioning of the water cycle embedded in the monsoon system.     

Validation of chemistry transport model of the lower atmosphere in the central European region of Russia using ground-based and satellite measurement data

A modern three-dimensional chemistry transport model is adopted for computation of air pollution with photo-oxidants in the Moscow megalopolis and in the several neighboring regions. Along the vertical, the model covers the entire troposphere and has a two-scale horizontal structure, when the resolution of the “inserted” domain is about 13 km. The model computation results are compared with the satellite tropospheric nitrogen dioxide measurements and ground-based measurements of the surface ozone concentration. The analysis results of one of the episodes of enhanced ozone content is considered as an example of a possible use of the model considered as a diagnostic tool for studying issues connected with the air pollution in the region under consideration.     

地形云人工增雨条件卫星探测反演个例分析

选取2007年6月21日陕西白于山区地形云降水过程,用极轨卫星资料反演高空间分辨率的云微物理特征.对云降水物理结构分析表明:(1)山前云区(迎风坡)云顶亮温(T)为-31℃,粒子有效半径(Re)为9μm,含有丰富过冷水,缺乏冰晶;(2)T=-20℃的低云在有高云参与的情况下,产生了较多的降水;(3)山前云区面积约400...     

Climatic simulations of the eastern Andes low-level jet and its dependency on convective parameterizations

The South American low level jet (SALLJ) of the Eastern Andes is investigated with Regional Climate Model version 3 (RegCM3) simulations during the 2002–2003 austral summer using two convective parameterizations (Grell and Emanuel). The simulated SALLJ is compared with the special observations of SALLJEX (SALLJ Experiment). Both the Grell and Emanuel schemes adequately simulate the low level flow over South America. However, there are some intensity differences. Due to the larger (smaller) convective activity, the Emanuel (Grell) scheme simulates more intense (weaker) low level wind than analysis in the tropics and subtropics. The objectives criteria of Sugahara (SJ) and Bonner (BJ) were used for LLJ identification. When applied to the observations, both criteria suggest a larger frequency of the SALLJ in Santa Cruz, followed by Mariscal, Trinidad and Asunción. In Mariscal and Asunción, the diurnal cycle indicates that SJ occurs mainly at 12 UTCs (morning), while the BJ criterion presents the SALLJ as more homogenously distributed. The concentration into two of the four-times-a-day observations does not allow conclusions about the diurnal cycle in Santa Cruz and Trinidad. The simulated wind profiles result in a lower than observed frequency of SALLJ using both the SJ and BJ criteria, with fewer events obtained with the BJ. Due to the stronger simulated winds, the Emanuel scheme produces an equal or greater relative frequency of SALLJ than the Grell scheme. However, the Grell scheme using the SJ criterion simulates the SALLJ diurnal cycle closer to the observed one. Although some discrepancies between observed and simulated mean vertical profiles of the horizontal wind are noted, there is large agreement between the composites of the vertical structure of the SALLJ, especially when the SJ criterion is used with the Grell scheme. On an intraseasonal scale, a larger southward displacement of SALLJ in February and December when compared with January has been noted. The Grell and Emanuel schemes simulated this observed oscillation in the low-level flow. However, the spatial pattern and intensity of rainfall and circulation anomalies simulated by the Grell scheme are closer to the analyses than those obtained with the Emanuel scheme.     

Investigation of aerosol–cloud interactions using a chemical transport model constrained by satellite observations

This study simulates optical depth of marine warm clouds for year 2001 based on interactively predicted aerosol concentrations with a global chemical transport model (CTM) driven by the ERA-40 re-analysis meteorological data. The simulated aerosol and cloud droplet number concentrations (CDNC) largely reproduce the variations between polluted and pristine marine environment as revealed by surface and aircraft measurements. By constraining cloud liquid water path (CLWP) with satellite microwave measurements, the simulated global and southern hemispheric aerosol optical depth (AOD) and cloud optical depth (COD) are well within 10% of the observed values. As a result of larger anthropogenic aerosol loadings over the northern oceans, the simulated CDNC and COD are, respectively, by 51 and 18% higher than those over the southern oceans, while the column-averaged droplet effective radius is 13% smaller. These simulated interhemispheric differences, while qualitatively consistent with satellite observations, are larger than the observations. Inclusion of drizzle effect improved the disparities but not entirely. The constrained CTM generally captures the seasonality in AOD and CLWP observations, and demonstrates that annual cycle of COD is dominated by CLWP. During winter monsoon the simulated and observed COD correlate more strongly with changes in AOD over the N. Indian Ocean.     

A statistical model for describing the texture of cloud cover images from satellite data

A statistical model is proposed which describes the texture of the images of 25 types of clouds from the MODIS satellite data with the spatial resolution of 250 m. A technique is presented which compiles the sets of image segments with typical textures for different cloud types. To describe the texture, the following statistical methods are applied: Gray-Level Co-occurrences Matrix, Gray-Level Difference Vector, and Sum and Difference Histogram. The correlation analysis is used to form the sets of informative textural features for the images of different cloud types. Two-parameter distribution laws and the estimates of their parameters are presented which describe fluctuations in the efficient set of textural features of different cloud types.     

地基探测与NCEP GFS模式预报云量在ARM SGP站点对比

使用大气辐射测量实验(Atmospheric Radiation Measurements:ARM)在美国南部大平原站点(Southern Great Plains:SGP)长时间序列(2001 2010年)的地基主动遥感云(Active Remote Sensing of Clouds:ARSCL)和美国国家环境预报中心(National Centers for Environmental Prediction:NCEP)全球预报系统(Global Forecast System:GFS)模式预报资料,对比分析了两者云量在不同时间尺度内(年际、月份和季节)的差异。结果表明,GFS模式预报总云量为83.8%,略高于地基观测结果(78.1%);两者总云量差异在秋季最大(8.8%),春季最小(2.2%)。在低垂直高度分辨率(≥3 km)时,地基探测低云、中云和高云的云量分别为46.1%、43.5%和61.2%;模式预报三类云的云量均要高于地基探测的云量,差异分别为9.6%、17.2%和9.1%。但是,在高垂直分辨率(250 m)时,地基探测云量在大多数高度层上要高于模式预报结果。这应该是两种资料廓线中有云出现的高度层数目存在差异引起的。地基观测和GFS模式预报同时表明,SGP站点上空云量垂直廓线呈现双峰结构,在边界层附近(1 km)和上对流层区域(8-12 km)云量较大,2-3 km高度范围内云量较小。在春夏秋冬四个季节内,两种资料在低层边界层附近的最大云量偏差分别为9.5%、8.8%、7.8%和11.2%。     

一次典型层积云的飞机观测结果及与卫星资料的对比分析

飞机探测可直接获取云的微观结构特征量,但只是一些线段;卫星遥感资料可大范围监测云环境,但不是直接获得云参量,需要反演。因而开展云的飞机观测结果与卫星资料的对比分析是必要的。对1999月6月4日华北平原上一次层积云过程两个架次的飞机微物理探测资料进行了详细分析,并将飞机盘旋上升和下降取得的5次云参数垂直探测结果作为辐射传输模式SBDART2.4的输入,采取正演的方式与GMS5/VISSR、NOAA15/AVHRR反射通道的资料进行了对比分析。飞机探测显示层积云云厚约1000 m,云粒子浓度最大值425 cm-3,含水量最大值0.2 g/m3。第1架次云粒子浓度、含水量、有效半径的平均值为225±75 cm-3、0.08±0.03 g/m3、7.2±1.6μm,第2架次云粒子浓度、含水量、有效半径的平均值为196±73 cm-3、0.04±0.02 g/m3、4.9±1.4μm。按500 m垂直分层后,云粒子有效半径平均值为6.1±1.7μm,主体云层(1000—1500 m)柱含水量平均值为29.5±17.5 g/m2。敏感性试验表明当有云存在时,云的光学厚度是影响可见光通道反照率的主要因子,利用飞机探测云参数...     

The assessment of aerosol optical properties over Mohal in the northwestern Indian Himalayas using satellite and ground-based measurements and an influence of aerosol transport on aerosol radiative forcing

The present study deals with the aerosol optical properties which are assessed during the period 2007 to 2009 over Mohal (31.9oN, 77.12oE) in the northwestern Indian Himalaya, using ground-based measurements and multi-satellite data. The daily average value of aerosol optical depth (AOD) at 500?nm, ?ngstr?m exponent and turbidity coefficient are 0.24?±?0.08, 1.02?±?0.34 and 0.13?±?0.05, respectively. The comparative study of satellite and ground-based measurements reveals that the percentage retrieval for daily AOD at 550?nm over Mohal within the expected accuracy (???? _p?? ?=?±0.05?±?0.15?? _p?? ) is around 87%, with a significant correlation coefficient of 0.76. The present study suggests that the retrieval of AOD through satellite data is able to characterise the distribution of AOD over Mohal. However, further efforts are needed in order to eliminate systematic errors in the existing Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) algorithm. The transport of desert dust and anthropogenic aerosol during high aerosol loading days caused a significant reduction in surface-reaching solar radiation by 149 and 117%, respectively. This large reduction in surface-reaching solar radiation increased the atmospheric heating rate by 0.93 and 0.72?K?day^?1, respectively. This study indicates significant climatic implications due to the transport of aerosols in the northwestern Indian Himalaya.