Atmospheric turbulent fluxes over snow

On March 26, 1971, eddy fluxes of momentum, sensible heat and water vapour were measured over Lake Mendota, Wisconsin, U.S.A., which was covered by an extensive snowfall. An evaporation rate of about 0.7mm day^–1 (2.2 mW cm^–2) was detected. Wind speeds were light and the atmosphere near the surface was highly stable. In these conditions, the average sensible heat transfer and Reynolds stress were -0.9 mW cm^–2 and 0.10 dyn cm^–2, respectively. Comparison with measured gradients of wind speed, temperature and humidity yield a drag coefficient of about 0.54 × 10^–3, and bulk transfer coefficients for sensible and latent heat of 0.41 × 10^–3 and 0.78 × 10^–3, respectively, applied to 10-m data. When corrected for the effect of atmospheric stability, these three coefficients become (in the same order) 1.2 × 10^–3, 0.9 × 10^–3 and 2.5 × 10^–3. The errors in these estimates are such that the drag coefficient is not significantly different from that corresponding to an aerodynamically smooth surface, while the heat coefficients are similar to those normally applied over liquid water surfaces.     

2010年3月大气环流和天气分析

2010年3月大气环流主要特征如下:北半球高纬度地区有3个不同强度的极涡,中高纬度地区环流呈现三波型分布,三个大槽的强度偏弱,南支槽较多年平均位置略偏东,强度偏弱。西太平洋副热带高压呈东西带状分布,与常年同期相比明显偏强,副高西脊点已经西伸至印度洋一带。2010年3月全国平均气温为3.4℃,接近常年同期,东北、华北和新疆北部气温明显偏低,西南大部气温明显偏高。全国平均降水量为32.3 mm,较常年同期偏多4.2 mm。月内出现三次冷空气过程和七次沙尘天气过程。     

Modelled atmospheric response to changes in Northern Hemisphere snow cover

The surface boundary conditions are altered in a numerical simulation of January climate by prescribing (a) higher and (b) lower than average snow extent over Northern Hemisphere land masses. The anomalies in snow cover are shown to have quite a strong impact on the mean climatic state. Associated with an increase in the areal extent of the snow, there is a significant reduction in temperature throughout the lower troposphere. There are also large increases in sea-level pressure over most land areas. Significant responses in the mass field are also seen at 500 hPa where reductions in atmospheric thickness lead to significant negative anomalies in the height field. Responses are also seen non-locally, over both the North Pacific and North Atlantic basins. The impact of increased snow on cyclone tracks is also examined. A reduction in cyclones is noted over both continents and over the western sectors of both ocean basins. Over the North Atlantic basin this reduction extends across over Europe, significantly weakening the storm track. In the North Pacific, cyclone density is reduced in the west while in the east, there is actually a strengthening of the storm tracks. There are corresponding changes in the genesis of cyclones in both of these regions. The change in cyclogenesis, intensity and density is demonstrated to be associated with changes in baroclinicity between the two experiments. The anomalous snow boundary conditions lead to significant changes in the meridional temperature gradients over both ocean basins which impact on the baroclinic zones. Received: 5 January 1996 / Accepted: 4 May 1996     

2016年3月大气环流和天气分析

2016年3月大气环流主要特征是：极涡呈偶极型,主极涡偏向西半球,巴尔喀什湖至我国东部为弱脊控制,欧亚大陆环流经向度总体偏小。副热带高压脊线较常年偏南,向西延伸至印度洋与非洲大陆副热带高压打通成带状,南支槽较常年偏弱,但高原槽较为活跃。3月,全国平均降水量为29.3 mm,接近常年同期（29.5 mm）。全国平均气温为6.1℃,较常年同期（4.1）偏高2.0℃,为历史同期第三高值。月内,我国出现1次较强的冷空气过程和2次较强的降水过程,广东3月21日宣布开汛,提前16 d进入华南前汛期。我国中东部出现2次雾 霾天气过程,北方出现3次沙尘天气过程,晋豫陕部分地区遭受气象干旱。西南、江南中南部、华南中东部多地出现雷暴大风、冰雹、短时强降水等强对流天气。     

2012年3月大气环流和天气分析

2012年3月大气环流主要特征是:北半球极涡呈多极型分布,强度较常年同期略偏强;中高纬度环流呈4波型分布,中低纬地区南支槽略偏强,有利西南暖湿空气向我国的输送;西太平洋副热带高压强度偏弱。3月全国平均气温为3.5℃,比常年同期(3.8℃)略偏低0.3℃。全国平均降水量为31.4 mm,较常年同期(28.9 mm)偏多8.7%。月内我国出现了3次主要的冷空气过程,北方出现今年首次沙尘天气过程,南方持续低温阴雨天气。     

2019年3月大气环流和天气分析

2019年3月大气环流的主要特征是极涡偏强且呈单极型分布,中高纬环流呈三波型分布,东亚槽偏东偏弱,导致弱冷空气频繁影响我国且路径偏东,西太平洋副热带高压强度较常年偏强,南支槽强度较常年偏弱但短波活跃,与频繁南下的东路冷空气交汇造成江南华南降雨显著偏多。3月全国平均气温为5.6℃,较常年同期（4.1℃）偏高1.5℃;全国平均降水量为30.0 mm,接近常年同期（29.5 mm）。月内我国出现1次全国强冷空气过程;南方地区有7次区域性暴雨天气过程;北方地区有1次沙尘天气过程;3月强对流天气过程频繁,江西、广东、广西、湖南等省(区)多地遭受风雹袭击。     

2015年3月大气环流和天气分析

2015年3月大气环流主要特征是:北半球极涡呈偶极型分布,位置较常年同期明显偏南,欧亚中高纬环流经向度较小,南支槽平均位置位于70°E附近;同时,西太平洋副热带高压较常年同期明显偏强、位置偏西.3月,全国平均降水量为21.8mm,较常年同期(29.5mm)偏少26.1％.全国平均气温为5.8℃,较常年同期(4.1℃)偏高1.7℃.月内,我国出现5次主要的冷空气过程和5次主要的降水过程.江南等地多阴雨天气,我国东部出现3次轻到中度雾-霾天气,北方出现5次沙尘天气过程.     

2020年3月大气环流和天气分析

2020年3月大气环流的主要特征是极涡呈单极偏心亚洲分布,强度偏强;中高纬环流呈3波型,东亚槽偏浅;西太平洋副热带高压偏强,南支槽强度与常年平均相当。影响我国冷空气总体多而不强,致3月大部地区显著偏暖,全国平均气温为6.1℃,较常年同期（4.1℃）偏高2.0℃,有58个站最高气温破历史同期极值;弱冷空气频繁渗透南下配合南支槽活动致江南华南多连阴雨,全国平均降水量为35.0 mm,较常年同期（29.5 mm）偏多18.4%。月内共出现3次较强冷空气过程,配合前期偏暖背景,有91个站出现日极端降温事件。南方地区发生7次大范围降雨过程,其中3次伴随有明显的强对流天气过程,多省遭受风雹袭击,局部地区受灾较重。此外,北方地区出现4次沙尘天气过程;四川东部、陕西南部、云南发生干旱。     

2017年3月大气环流和天气分析

2017年3月大气环流的主要特征是极涡偏强且呈单极型分布,中高纬环流呈4波型,西太平洋副热带高压强度较常年偏弱,南支槽强度较常年偏强。3月全国平均气温4.5℃,较常年同期偏高0.4℃;全国平均降水量36.2 mm,比常年同期（29.5 mm）偏多22.7%。月内我国东部地区有2次中等强度冷空气过程;南方地区有3次区域性暴雨天气过程;北方地区有2次沙尘天气过程;江苏、湖南等省局地遭受风雹袭击。     

2024年3月大气环流和天气分析

2024年3月北半球极涡呈单极偏心型分布,强度偏强;中高纬环流呈异常四波型,亚洲环流较平直。我国北方基本为500 hPa高度场负距平区域,西太平洋副热带高压较常年偏西、偏强,南支槽较常年偏弱。全国平均气温为6.0℃,较常年同期偏高1.2℃。全国平均降水量24.0 mm,较常年同期（29.4 mm）偏少18.4%,然而,内蒙古北部和西北地区中东部降水量较常年同期显著偏多。月内,发生1次大范围降雨过程;强对流天气频繁,出现3次区域性强对流过程,局地强度强;出现2次冷空气过程,降温幅度不大。此外,北方地区出现3次沙尘天气过程,西南地区冬春连旱持续。     

2014年3月大气环流和天气分析

2014年3月大气环流特征为：北半球极涡呈偏心型,主体位于北美北部,同时在新地岛和鄂霍次克海附近分别有2个低涡中心,较常年平均状况,前者异常偏强10 dagpm左右,后者位置偏南,亚洲大陆高压脊异常偏强6 dagpm左右,范围异常偏大,导致3月我国气温较常年同期（4.1℃）异常偏高1.2℃,为1961年以来第六高值。东亚大槽强度和位置、南支系统和西北太平洋副热带高压接近常年平均状况。3月我国平均降水量为29.1 mm,接近常年平均值（29.5 mm）。月内,南方多阴雨天气,北方地区出现沙尘天气过程,中东部出现雾或霾天气过程,多省出现雷雨大风、冰雹等强对流天气。     

2011年3月大气环流和天气分析

2011年3月环流特征如下：北半球极涡呈绕极型,强度较常年同期偏强,中高纬度环流呈4波型,南支槽略偏强,西北太平洋副热带高压强度偏弱,位置偏东。全国平均降水量为20.4 mm,比常年同期偏少27％,为近10年来历史同期最少;受冷空气、南支槽及西北太平洋副高的影响,月内共有7次主要的降水过程,较强的雨雪天气过程主要集中在...     

2013年3月大气环流和天气分析

2013年3月大气环流特征为:北半球极涡呈偏心型,两个中心分别位于欧洲和亚洲北部,极涡范围较常年偏南,中高纬环流呈4波型,南支槽略偏弱,西北太平洋副热带高压(以下简称副高)略偏强.下旬南支活动加强,南方降水增多.全国平均降水量为26.1 mm,较常年同期偏少11.5％.平均气温为6.3℃,较常年同期偏高2.2℃,为1961年以来第二高值.月内发生5次冷空气过程,其中8-11日出现2013年以来最大范围沙尘天气;出现5次主要降水过程,其中19-20日江南、华南出现2013年以来最大范围强对流天气.     

Rapid vegetation responses and feedbacks amplify climate model response to snow cover changes

We investigate the response of a climate system model to two different methods for estimating snow cover fraction. In the control case, snow cover fraction changes gradually with snow depth; in the alternative scenarios (one with prescribed vegetation and one with dynamic vegetation), snow cover fraction initially increases with snow depth almost twice as fast as the control method. In cases where the vegetation was fixed (prescribed), the choice of snow cover parameterization resulted in a limited model response. Increased albedo associated with the high snow caused some moderate localized cooling (3–5°C), mostly at very high latitudes (>70°N) and during the spring season. During the other seasons, however, the cooling was not very extensive. With dynamic vegetation the change is much more dramatic. The initial increases in snow cover fraction with the new parameterization lead to a large-scale southward retreat of boreal vegetation, widespread cooling, and persistent snow cover over much of the boreal region during the boreal summer. Large cold anomalies of up to 15°C cover much of northern Eurasia and North America and the cooling is geographically extensive in the northern hemisphere extratropics, especially during the spring and summer seasons. This study demonstrates the potential for dynamic vegetation within climate models to be quite sensitive to modest forcing. This highlights the importance of dynamic vegetation, both as an amplifier of feedbacks in the climate system and as an essential consideration when implementing adjustments to existing model parameters and algorithms.     

Atmospheric response to deep-sea injections of fossil-fuel carbon dioxide

The possibility of controlling atmospheric carbon dioxide accumulation and attendant climatic effects from fossil-fuel burning by diverting a fraction of the combustion product and injecting it into the deep-ocean, as proposed by Marchetti, is analyzed using an atmosphere/mixed layer/diffusive deep-ocean model for the carbon cycle. The model includes the nonlinear buffering of CO₂ at the air/sea interface, and considers the long term trends associated with consuming an assumed fossil-fuel reserve equivalent to 7.09 × 10¹⁵ kg carbon as a logistic function of time as in the projections of Siegenthaler and Oeschger, except that atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are computed for five alternate strategies: (a) 100% injected into atmosphere, (b) 50% injected at oceanic depth of 1500 m and 50% into atmosphere, (c) 50% injected at sea floor (4000 m) and 50% into atmosphere, (d) 100% at 1500 m depth and (e) 100% at sea floor. Since no carbon leaves the system, all runs approached the same post-fossil fuel equilibrium after several thousand years, C _a - 1150 ppm, almost four times the pre-fossil fuel value (- 300 ppm). But the transient response of these cases showed a marked variation ranging from a peak overshoot value of 2800 ppm in the year 2130 for 100% atmospheric injection to a slight decrease to the pre-fossil fuel 300 ppm lasting till 2300 with a subsequent slow approach to equilibrium for the 100% deep-ocean injection. The implications of these results for an oceanic injection strategy to mitigate the climatic impact of fossil-fuel CO₂ is discussed, as are the ingredients of a second generation carbon cycle model for carrying out such forecasts on an engineering design basis.     

Atmospheric CO2 variations at Barrow,Alaska, 1973–1982

The first 10 years (1973–1982) of atmospheric CO₂ measurements at Barrow, Alaska, by the NOAA/GMCC program are described. The paper updates and extends the Barrow CO₂ record presented in Tellus (1982). The data are given in final form, based on recent calibrations of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, with selected values identified as representative of large, spacescale conditions. Analyses of the data show: (1) a long-term CO₂ average increase of 1.3 ppm per year, but with large year-to-year variations in that growth rate; (2) a suggestion, not statistically significant, of a secular increase in the amplitude of the annual cycle, presumably a reflection of global-scale biospheric variability; and (3) good absolute agreement between the Barrow results and those from four neighboring high latitude sites between 50 and 82°N.     

Climatonomical modeling of temperature response to dust contamination of Antarctic snow surfaces

Monthly averages of the surface energy balance are parameterized, resulting in a reduced solar forcing function and a non-dimensional time scale for computing the thermal response at the air/snow interface by numerical forward integration. The climatonomic transform of the balance equation serves to assess surface-temperature perturbations resulting from parameter modifications which simulate effects of dust contamination of a snow surface. Three climatonomical model experiments permit the following conclusions: (1) an albedo reduction increases primarily the summer temperatures; (2) an emissivity decrease raises the temperature of all months nearly uniformly; (3) the thermally induced feedback on submedium structure (if summer melting is instigated) increases the storage capacity and reduces spring and summer temperatures with compensating rise in autumn and winter temperature. Quantitative results are exemplified by assumed modification of conditions known to exist at the South Polar Plateau.