Effect of Aerosol Particles on Orographic Clouds:Sensitivity to Autoconversion Schemes

Aerosol particles can serve as cloud condensation nuclei(CCN)to influence orographic clouds.Autoconversion,which describes the initial formation of raindrops from the collision of cloud droplets,is an important process for aerosol-cloud-precipitation systems.In this study,seven autoconversion schemes are used to investigate the impact of CCN on orographic warm-phase clouds.As the initial cloud droplet concentration is increased from 100 cm^-3to 1000 cm^-3(to represent an increase in CCN),the cloud water increases and then the rainwater is suppressed due to a decrease in the autoconversion rate,leading to a spatial shift in surface precipitation.Intercomparison of the results from the autoconversion schemes show that the sensitivity of cloud water,rainwater,and surface precipitation to a change in the concentration of CCN is different from scheme to scheme.In particular,the decrease in orographic precipitation due to increasing CCN is found to range from-87%to-10%depending on the autoconversion scheme.Moreover,the surface precipitation distribution also changes significantly by scheme or CCN concentration,and the increase in the spillover(ratio of precipitation on the leeward side to total precipitation)induced by increased CCN ranges from 10%to 55%under different autoconversion schemes.The simulations suggest that autoconversion parameterization schemes should not be ignored in the interaction of aerosol and orographic cloud.     

地形非均匀性对网格区地面长波辐射通量计算的影响

从理论和数值试验两个方面证明地形的非均匀性(如海拔高度)对网格区地面长波辐射通量的计算有重要影响,海拔高度场的区域平均值及其变差系数是影响网格区地面长波辐射通量的主要因素,仅仅用地表均匀假定下的区域平均参量(如平均海拔高度和平均温度)所计算的网格区地表有效辐射通量值与其真实值之间存在着一定的误差。由于地表有效辐射通量是海拔高度的非线性函数,在特定情况下,其影响相当大,可产生不容忽略的误差。相对而言,海拔高度自身非均匀性对误差的影响远大于地表温度非均匀性项及其混合扰动项所产生的误差。对于不同的地形平均高度,地形非均匀性影响的程度并不相同。平均高度较小时,非均匀性的影响几乎可以忽略,但随着地形平均高度的增加,地形非均匀性的影响程度呈非线性增长趋势。因而,在复杂地形区域,考虑次网格地形的热力作用非常必要。     

祁连山夏季地形云结构和云微物理过程的模拟研究(II):云微物理过程和地形影响

本文是祁连山夏季地形云结构和微物理过程模拟的第II部分。文中利用第I部分中祁连山夏季两个地形云降水个例的模拟结果,详细分析了地形云及其降水发展期间云微物理过程的特征及变化,并通过与平坦地面条件下模拟结果的对比,研究了云发展过程中的地形影响。研究表明,地形云中微物理过程的发展受地形影响很大,冰相微物理过程明显增强;地形影响下云的主要降水机制也受到影响甚至被改变。     

祁连山夏季西南气流背景下地形云形成和演化的观测研究

利用2007年祁连山地形云的观测试验资料,分析了祁连山夏季西南气流背景下地形云的演化过程,得到了祁连山地形云发展和演变的概念模型。(1)祁连山地形云的水汽主要分布在3500～6500m的范围内,对流层中层的西南气流将水汽由南向北输送到祁连山区。(2)祁连山区水汽比较丰沛,凝结高度和自由对流高度均较低,当湿气团抬升到凝结高度以上时对流有效位能很容易释放,形成有利于产生降水的云系。(3)祁连山每个山峰南北侧昼间的谷风会在山峰辐合抬升,众多山峰形成的祁连山群谷风的抬升作用下容易形成沿山脊排列的中β对流云带,在高空西南气流的推动下移到北侧,是造成北侧降水比南侧大的原因之一。     

基于ECMWF模式预报的台风降水地形订正方法

为了解决复杂地形条件下ECMWF模式预报的台风降水较实况显著小的问题,对Smith 1979年提出的地形降水方程进行改进,提出以饱和湿层高度作为方程积分上限,针对不同高度地形设定不同的降水效率;以无量纲湿弗劳德数大于1作为有、无地形降水的判据;利用ECWMF细网格预报场,通过迎风坡地形降水估算方程来订正模式预报的台风降水。用该地形降水订正方法对1617号台风“鲇鱼”的降水进行了订正预报。结果表明,虽然在一些小尺度地形区域会产生明显的空报,但是对于大尺度地形区域的强降水有显著的订正效果。对1513、1521和1614台风的订正结果进一步表明,该地形降水订正方法对改进台风极端降水预报效果显著。需要指出的是,采用的地形降水订正方法仅考虑了稳定条件下的地形降水,对于其他情形下的地形降水订正方法尚待进一步的研究。      

华东中尺度地形对浙北暴雨影响的模拟研究

以一次梅雨降水为例，利用中尺度模式进行一系列中尺度地形对降水的增幅影响的敏感性试验。结果表明，中尺度地形对强降水区域的分布和强度有很大的影响，强降水中心位于地形附近，地形引起的１２小时降水增幅高达总降水的９０％以上；中尺度地形作为一种外界迫动，初始在低层形成气旋性辐合和水汽热量的集中，然后通过凝结潜热释放所造成的中高层增温和高层辐散，使得地形垂直环流加强和向上伸展。于是在降水、潜热释放与地形垂直环流之间出现一种正反馈机制，导致地形对降水的强烈增幅；同时午后下垫面加热所形成的不稳定层结也有利于地形垂直环流的不稳定发展，产生新的雨峰；初始场的中尺度扰动似乎在降水的地形性增幅中并不起明显作用。     

条件不稳定湿大气中三维理想地形上空对流的动力学特征

条件不稳定湿大气情况下,气流经过三维地形可以形成不同性质的对流系统以及不同特征的地形流结构,其对流系统、地形流的性质主要取决于地形上空的对流触发、对流-地形流-重力波三者之间的相互作用,同样这些过程对于地形降水的性质、分布起重要的作用.根据不同湿Fr数(Froude number),湿条件不稳定大气经过三维小尺度山地上空时其对流和地形流动存在4种不同的流域(flow regirnes):(1)下游传播对流模态;(2)上游传播和下游传播共存对流模态;(3)山峰附近准静止和下游传播共存对流模态;(4)下坡稳定和下游传播对流共存模态.地形上空对流系统主要可以通过两种不同机制形成:(1)地形直接的抬升或减速作用;(2)在地形流形成后,由于地形流本身特性(如上游分离、背风涡旋和下坡重力波破碎)触发.在较大的Fr数情况下,地形上空对流生成后反过来可以破坏上、下游的地形流结构,但对背风坡的重力波破碎影响较小.不同初始对流有效位能(CAPE)不仅可以影响对流系统的传播、发展,而且可以影响整体地形流性质.较低的初始CAPE有利于地形流的形成,此时对流对地形流结构特征的影响相对较小,其流场性质与低Fr数流域性质相似.     

青藏高原地形重力波拖曳的初步分析及数值模拟研究

针对目前对青藏高原大地形激发的重力波拖曳相关问题还不十分清楚,在GRAPES_Meso模式中引入次网格地形重力波拖曳参数化方案,通过数值试验初步研究了青藏高原地区次网格地形重力波拖曳的一些相关参数,结果指出:(1)沿30°N地形重力波拖曳的垂直分布显示,阻塞拖曳主要存在于模式的低层(第1—5层),重力波拖曳主要存在于模式的第5—10层;从水平分布看,模式第3层以阻塞拖曳为主,主要位于青藏高原边缘地区,阻塞拖曳大值区沿喜马拉雅山脉走向和青藏高原东坡;模式第5层以重力波拖曳为主,主要位于青藏高原东部地区和云贵高原的北部边缘。(2)弗劳德数和气流绕流高度分析表明,在青藏高原喜马拉雅山脉一带和高原东部边缘地区,气流爬坡能力强,同时在这一地区绕流高度最高;弗劳德数越大的地区绕流高度距离地表越高。(3)采用次网格地形重力波拖曳参数化方案后,对于低层和高层地形重力波破碎的发生有更准确的描述,地形重力波是向上垂直传播的。(4)个例和批量试验检验结果表明,采用次网格地形重力波拖曳参数化方案对于风场和降水模拟有正效果,提高了模式预报的准确率。     

对流云降水过程中地形作用的数值模拟

该文利用地形追随坐标三维云模式，对湖北的一次对流降水过程进行了平坦地面和理想斜坡地形的模拟试验。结果发现平坦地面模拟的回波强度、最大降水强度和累积降水都与实况有相当的差距。理想地形的对流过程虽然不能模拟出对流群中多单体的生消过程，但最大降水强度和累积降水都比平坦地面的大，更接近实测结果。模拟试验表明，在地形坡度较大时，会产生较强的上升气流，从而使系统对流发展旺盛，产生较大的降水和较强的回波。所以在模拟山区和丘陵地带的对流系统时，采用地形坐标并考虑地形将会改善模式的模拟结果。     

钟形地形动力抬升和重力波传播与地形云和降水形成关系研究

地形云和降水过程在区域水循环、水资源、生态环境及气候变化中具有十分重要的作用。本文利用中尺度数值模式WRF 数值模拟试验,以及通过引入表示大气层流速度、层结稳定度和地形特征的关系参数——湿Froude 数(F_w),研究了北京2009 年5 月1 日湿条件不稳定大气层结下,地形云和降水形成过程与地形动力抬升和地形重力波传播之间的关系及形成机理。研究表明,在地形最大高度2 km、半宽10 km 的条件下,层流速度从2.5 m/s 逐步增加到25 m/s 时,对应的湿F_w 数从0.19 增加到1.81。当F_w≤1 时,地形的阻挡起主要作用,由地形抬升形成的地形云主要产生在迎风坡一侧。地形重力波主要产生在迎风坡,并向上游传播,先形成层状云,最后演变为准稳定浅对流波状云。最大降水主要发生在紧靠山顶的迎风坡一侧,但当F_w 很小时,地形云不产生降水。当F_w>1 时,地形抬升形成的云主要发生在山顶附近,而地形重力波主要形成在背风坡,并向下游方向传播,形成准稳定波状云。最大降水主要产生在紧靠山顶的背风坡一侧。另外,在弱湿条件不稳定大气层流下,地形降水主要由地形动力抬升造成的暖云微物理过程产生,地形重力波形成的波状云几乎不产生降水。     

秦岭地区气溶胶对地形云降水的抑制作用

以华山站为影响站, 周围的西安、渭南和华阴作为对比站, 通过影响站与对比站降水之比——地形强化因子(Ro)的变化趋势以及Ro与能见度关系的分析, 定量研究了秦岭地区气溶胶对地形云降水的抑制作用。Ro的演变分析表明: 有观测以来Ro逐年递减, 减幅为14%～20%, 即影响站与对比站相比降水量减少了14%～20%; Ro的减少趋势与能见度递减、气溶胶递增相吻合, 说明气溶胶的增加抑制了地形云降水。Ro的递减主要是减少了中小雨 (日雨量小于30 mm) 的天数, 这种影响对浅薄的生命期较短的地形云降水作用更明显, 对于华山站, 30 mm以下的降水都会受到入云气溶胶的抑制作用, 而西安站为5 mm以下, 入云气溶胶浓度越高, 就有越厚的降水云受气溶胶影响而抑制降水; 在以动力强迫抬升为主的春秋季, 气溶胶抑制华山地形云降水20%左右, 最大可达25%; 在热对流条件下, 气溶胶对地形云和对平原地区云的抑制作用基本相当。不同风速风向下Ro的变化趋势表明, Ro递减随风速增大而加快, 迎风向 (240°～30°) 大风 (≥5 m/s) 时减少降水超过30%。由Ro与能见度关系的定量分析发现, 当能见度在14 km时Ro为1.8左右, 随着能见度的降低Ro逐渐减小, 当能见度小于8 km时,R0约为1.2, 减小了30%左右; 华山对于华阴的Ro与能见度呈线性关系, 相关系数达0.81。最后, 根据研究结果归纳出气溶胶抑制秦岭地区地形云降水的初步物理模型。     

地形雨估算初探

阐述了在弧状山体有水汽输入的流域或地区，通过地形参数，控空资料及其有关气象因子、来估算地形雨的方法和步骤，从而使地形雨这一分量，可自大气环流，天气系统的降水量中分离出来。     

台风“桑美”的数值模拟和地形敏感性试验

用WRF模式对0608号台风“桑美”进行了数值模拟研究,较为成功地模拟出了台风路径和降水,但模拟的台风中心气压远高于实况。为研究“桑美”登陆期间地形的抬升作用对其降水及结构的影响,通过改变特定区域内的地形高度设计了一组敏感性试验。结果表明,台风登陆过程中地形抬升作用对台风降雨量有显著的增幅作用;台风中心位势涡度、气流垂直上升速度、水平水汽通量散度明显增大;地形抬升机制在台风登陆时刻达到最强。     

GRAPES中地形重力波拖曳物理过程的引进和应用试验

在中国新一代全球中期/区域中尺度同化与预报系统(GRAPES)模式中引进了ECMWF地形重力波拖曳物理过程,填补了GRAPES全球中期数值预报系统中物理过程的空白。重新计算了地形重力波过程需要的地形静态资料数据,并与原ECMWF模式的地形静态参数进行了对比分析,验证了模式地形参数的正确性。利用GRAPES模式,进行了地形重力波拖曳物理过程影响的敏感性数值试验;结果表明:引进地形重力波拖曳过程以后,在存在大地形的区域,风场会发生变化,当纬向风遇到青藏高原时,一部分气流会产生爬坡效应而越过高原,使高原上空的西风气流减弱;另一部分气流会绕过高原,在高原的南侧产生绕流;随着模式积分时间的延长,风场变化会越来越明显,地形越复杂,风场的变化也越复杂;连续的模式积分试验结果显示,引进地形重力波过程,可以延长GRAPES模式的可用预报时效,提高了全球形势预报的准确率。通过对一次降水过程的模拟,对地形重力波过程影响降水预报的原因进行了简单分析。结果显示:引进地形重力波拖曳过程后,改变了大气流场的分布,使预报的流场更接近于大气真实状态,从而提高了降水预报的准确率。     

Monsoon circulation interaction with Western Ghats orography under changing climate

In this study, the authors have investigated the likely future changes in the summer monsoon over the Western Ghats (WG) orographic region of India in response to global warming, using time-slice simulations of an ultra high-resolution global climate model and climate datasets of recent past. The model with approximately 20-km mesh horizontal resolution resolves orographic features on finer spatial scales leading to a quasi-realistic simulation of the spatial distribution of the present-day summer monsoon rainfall over India and trends in monsoon rainfall over the west coast of India. As a result, a higher degree of confidence appears to emerge in many aspects of the 20-km model simulation, and therefore, we can have better confidence in the validity of the model prediction of future changes in the climate over WG mountains. Our analysis suggests that the summer mean rainfall and the vertical velocities over the orographic regions of Western Ghats have significantly weakened during the recent past and the model simulates these features realistically in the present-day climate simulation. Under future climate scenario, by the end of the twenty-first century, the model projects reduced orographic precipitation over the narrow Western Ghats south of 16°N that is found to be associated with drastic reduction in the southwesterly winds and moisture transport into the region, weakening of the summer mean meridional circulation and diminished vertical velocities. We show that this is due to larger upper tropospheric warming relative to the surface and lower levels, which decreases the lapse rate causing an increase in vertical moist static stability (which in turn inhibits vertical ascent) in response to global warming. Increased stability that weakens vertical velocities leads to reduction in large-scale precipitation which is found to be the major contributor to summer mean rainfall over WG orographic region. This is further corroborated by a significant decrease in the frequency of moderate-to-heavy rainfall days over WG which is a typical manifestation of the decrease in large-scale precipitation over this region. Thus, the drastic reduction of vertical ascent and weakening of circulation due to ??upper tropospheric warming effect?? predominates over the ??moisture build-up effect?? in reducing the rainfall over this narrow orographic region. This analysis illustrates that monsoon rainfall over mountainous regions is strongly controlled by processes and parameterized physics which need to be resolved with adequately high resolution for accurate assessment of local and regional-scale climate change.     

The effects of orography in indochina on wind, cloud, and rainfall patterns during Typhoon Ketsana (2009)

The objective of this study is to i) investigate the effects of orography on the rainfall, wind, and cloud systems of the Typhoon Ketsana (2009) in Indochina, ii) determine rainfall distribution patterns and which parts of Indochina were most affected during Typhoon Ketsana, iii) identify trends in the cloud and rainfall distribution patterns and wind flow patterns in the synoptic scale on orographic effects during Typhoon Ketsana. Remote sensing techniques have been used to study the impacts of TCs. Using data from the remote sensing data such as Fengyun 2D (FY-2D) satellite, Global Digital Elevation Model (GDEM) from the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) satellite, wind information from the Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System (NOGAPS), and radiosonde data were applied in this study to determine the relationship of the typhoon with the orographic effect. This study provides examples of how the orographic effect is important to weather forecasters, as high mountain ranges were able to influence the distribution of the cloud, rainfall and even wind flow patterns during the typhoon season. This remote sensing technique allows tropical cyclones to be forecasted and their impacts to be defined, and it allows disaster zones to be determined.     

Planetary stationary waves in the atmosphere Part I: Orographic stationary waves

It is proposed that the orographic stationary waves are required by long-term balance of momentum in the at-mosphere with zonally asymmetric orographic forcing, This hypothesis may be confirmed successfully with the theo-retical model of geostrophic waves. In the Part I, we will explain the observed phase distributions of orographic sta-tionary waves at middle and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, according to the long-term balance of zonal momentum over the stationary orographic forcing. It is revealed that the geographic distribution of stationary waves depends not only on local topgraphy but also on mean circulation fields and angular momentum flux in the atmos-phere. So these waves cannot be simulated by the models in a restricted area.     

"海棠"(Haitang)台风降水非对称分布成因初步研究

2005年第5号台风"海棠"登陆福建省前后所引发的降水呈明显的南北非对称分布特征。逐时MT1R静止气象卫星IR1云图分析揭示,陆地上台风环流云系呈南北非对称分布。浓白色的降水云区主要位于台风北侧,而在此期间,台风南侧云系则相对较暗。在WRF模式成功模拟的基础上,分析模拟的700 hPa高度上相对湿度和垂直上升运动场表明,垂直上升运动场呈现出与降水场相似的南北非对称分布特征,而台风南北两侧空气相对湿度呈均匀分布。进一步改进的湿Q矢量(Q*)以及地形抬升和地表摩擦作用(简称地形因子)分析表明,Q*矢量散度辐合区、地形因子强迫产生的垂直上升速度区都呈南北非对称分布特征。综合考虑指出,"海棠"台风降水分布的南北非对称性,主要由动力因子(Q*矢量(相当于上升运动)、地形抬升与地表摩擦以及垂直上升运动场)引起的,而热力条件(包括相对湿度)是不重要的。     

New evidence of orographic precipitation suppression by aerosols in central China

The correlation between light precipitation events and visibility at Mt. Hua, (Shannxi Province, China) and at the surrounding plains stations was analyzed. Trends and changes in visibility, precipitation, the precipitation difference between Mt. Hua and the plains stations (De) and wind speed over the study area during the years 1980–2009 were also investigated. The significant positive correlation between visibility and light precipitation throughout the study period indicates that light precipitation events, notably orographic precipitation, are suppressed by aerosol pollution in this region. The trend of increasing air pollution aerosols since 1980, represented by visibility at Mt. Hua, ended in 2002 with a decreasing trend observed in more recent years. These changes were mirrored by corresponding changes in De. However, the total precipitation trends at Mt. Hua and the plains stations are consistent in both frequency and amount during the two periods, suggesting that the suppressive effect of pollution aerosols on light and moderate precipitation is the most likely cause for the changes in orographic precipitation at Mt. Hua during this time. The analysis of wind strength suggests that the increase in winds at Mt. Hua is highly related to the aerosol radiative effects; this increase of mountain winds is therefore a potential cause for the reduction in precipitation at Mt. Hua. This research provides further support for the hypothesis that aerosol microphysical effects can reduce orographic precipitation and suggests that aerosol radiative effects might act to suppress orographic precipitation through changes in wind speed.