Atmospheric correction for sea surface temperature retrieval from single thermal channel radiometer data onboard Kalpana satellite

An atmospheric correction method has been applied on sea surface temperature (SST) retrieval algorithm using Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) single window channel radiance data onboard Kalpana satellite (K-SAT). The technique makes use of concurrent water vapour fields available from Microwave Imager onboard Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM/TMI) satellite. Total water vapour content and satellite zenith angle dependent SST retrieval algorithm has been developed using Radiative Transfer Model [MODTRAN ver3.0] simulations for Kalpana 10.5–12.5 μm thermal window channel. Retrieval of Kalpana SST (K-SST) has been carried out for every half-hourly acquisition of Kalpana data for the year 2008 to cover whole annual cycle of SST over Indian Ocean (IO). Validation of the retrieved corrected SST has been carried out using near-simultaneous observations of ship and buoys datasets covering Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and IO regions. A significant improvement in Root Mean Square Deviation (RMSD) of K-SST with respect to buoy (1.50–1.02 K) and to ship datasets (1.41–1.19 K) is seen with the use of near real-time water vapour fields of TMI. Furthermore, comparison of the retrieved SST has also been carried out using near simultaneous observations of TRMM/TMI SST over IO regions. The analysis shows that K-SST has overall cold bias of 1.17 K and an RMSD of 1.09 K after bias correction.     

Estimation of snow cover distribution in Beas basin,Indian Himalaya using satellite data and ground measurements

In the present paper, a methodology has been developed for the mapping of snow cover in Beas basin, Indian Himalaya using AWiFS (IRS-P6) satellite data. The complexities in the mapping of snow cover in the study area are snow under vegetation, contaminated snow and patchy snow. To overcome these problems, field measurements using spectroradiometer were carried out and reflectance/snow indices trend were studied. By evaluation and validation of different topographic correction models, it was observed that, the normalized difference snow index (NDSI) values remain constant with the variations in slope and aspect and thus NDSI can take care of topography effects. Different snow cover mapping methods using snow indices are compared to find the suitable mapping technique. The proposed methodology for snow cover mapping uses the NDSI (estimated using planetary reflectance), NIR band reflectance and forest/vegetation cover information. The satellite estimated snow or non-snow pixel information using proposed methodology was validated with the snow cover information collected at three observatory locations and it was found that the algorithm classify all the sample points correctly, once that pixel is cloud free. The snow cover distribution was estimated using one year (2004–05) cloud free satellite data and good correlation was observed between increase/decrease areal extent of seasonal snow cover and ground observed fresh snowfall and standing snow data.     

Estimation of spectral reflectance of snow from IRS-1D LISS-III sensor over the Himalayan terrain

The sensor onboard the satellite views the earth as a plain surface and consequently the satelliteobtained spectral radiances cannot represent true values over a mountainous terrain. The relative magnitudes of terrain slope and its aspect with respect to the sun's position will determine the amount of direct solar radiation incident on an undulating surface. Estimation of spectral reflectance from satellite data forms an important component in many of the snow and glacier studies. The spectral reflectance of snow is influenced by its various parameters. The changes in snowpack characteristics as a result of various metamorphic processes, with age, can cause variations in its spectral reflectances. Since, the terrain geometry also modifies the amount of reflected radiation from a rugged surface, one has to correct the estimated spectral reflectances for terrain topography so as to use them in deriving the snowpack characteristics accurately. Also, the amounts of melt runoff originating from glaciers having different slopes and orientations will not be the same. Considering these aspects, a model has been developed to estimate the terrain corrected spectral reflectances over the Himalayan terrain using the Linear Imaging Self Scanner-III data of the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite. The model computes spectral reflectances from satellitebased radiance measurements and includes the effect of the terrain topography on the incident solar radiation. The terrain slope and its aspect are generated from the digital elevation model of the region. The analysis carried out over the Beas Basin, Himachal Pradesh, India, indicated a variation of 22% in the amount of incident solar radiation for an increase of 10‡ in terrain slope. Further, the terrain with south-east aspect received maximum amount of solar radiation. The large differences observed between the uncorrected and terrain corrected reflectances in the shortwave infrared band (B5), which is not saturated over the snow covered region, suggest that the terrain slope and its aspect cannot be neglected in estimating the accurate spectral reflectances over the Himalayan terrain.     

Snow cover depletion under changed climate with the help of remote sensing and temperature data

Snow cover depletion curve (SDC) is one of the important variables in snow hydrological applications, and these curves are very much required for snowmelt runoff modeling in a snowfed catchment. Remote sensing is an important source of snow cover area which is used for preparation of SDC. Snow cover maps produced by Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellites are one of the best source of satellite-based snow cover area at a regular interval. Therefore, in this study, snow cover maps have been prepared for the years 2000?C2005 using MODIS data. The study area chosen viz. Beas basin up to Pandoh dam falls in western Himalayan region. For snowmelt runoff modeling, catchment is divided into number of elevation zones and SDC is required for each zone. When sufficient satellite data are not available due to cloud cover or due to some other reasons, then SDC can to be generated using temperature data. Under changed climate conditions also, modified SDC is required. Therefore, to have SDC under such situations, a relationship between snow cover area and cumulative mean temperature has been developed for each zone of the catchment. This procedure of having snow cover maps has two main purposes. First, it could potentially be used to generate snow cover maps when cloud-free satellite data are not available. Second, it can be used to generate snow-covered area in a new climate to see the impact of climate change on snowmelt runoff studies.     

青藏高原Soumi-NPP和MODIS积雪范围产品的对比分析

Soumi-NPP（Soumi Polar-orbiting Partnership）卫星作为接替服役超期的Terra、Aqua卫星,其积雪范围产品在青藏高原的精度尚未被评价。以Soumi-NPP积雪范围产品为研究对象,利用气象台站点数据并结合更高分辨率的Landsat-8 OLI数据,评价该产品的精度,并与MODIS（Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer）积雪范围产品进行对比分析。结果表明：使用气象台站进行数据验证时,NPP、MOD与MYD三种积雪范围产品的总精度均较高,但三者积雪漏分误差都较大,其中MYD的漏分误差最大,为64.2%;当雪深小于5 cm时,三种积雪范围产品的积雪分类精度都较低,雪深大于等于5 cm时,NPP积雪范围产品的积雪分类精度最高,为82.3%,MOD与MYD的精度分别为77.1%和69.4%;利用Landsat-8 OLI数据验证时,Soumi-NPP积雪范围产品的Kappa系数最高,其均值为0.707,为高度一致性。而MOD10A1与MYD10A1的Kappa系数较低,分别为0.476与0.557,为中等一致性;Soumi-NPP积雪范围产品的Kappa系数大多在0.6以上,精度比较稳定,而MODIS积雪范围产品的Kappa系数波动较大,精度稳定性较差。Soumi-NPP积雪范围产品相较于MODIS积雪范围产品,其精度有了较大的提升,为准确监测青藏高原积雪范围提供了一个更优的选择。     

Snowmelt runoff and groundwater discharge in Himalayan rivers: a case study of the Satluj River,NW India

The Himalayas are one of the largest cryospheric systems outside the Polar Regions, and include more than 12,000 glaciers spread over an area of about 33,000 km². The Himalayan glaciers and snow packs retreating at an accelerating rate, thereby creating an alarming situation for the huge population that resides in northwestern India and southeastern Pakistan, as they depend on surface water resources in the region and rivers emanating from the Himalayas. This work attempts to quantify the contribution of different sources such as glacial/ice/snow melt and groundwater discharge to the Satluj River using the stable isotopes based hydrograph separation method at Ropar (foot hill) and Yusufpur in plain of Punjab, India. A mass balance model of three-component mixing has been engaged using the values of δ¹⁸O and electrical conductivity of the river water, and its discharge fraction, to estimate the time-varying relative proportion of each component from July 2013 to January 2014. The proportion of glacier melt was found to peak up to ~?64% at Ropar and ~?15% at Yusufpur during the wet summer months. The fraction of groundwater discharge was found to vary between 10–20% at Ropar and 25–35% at Yusufpur (Punjab plain) over time. The observed trend of d-excess (deuterium excess) values of river water also suggests that the glaciers and snow packs at higher altitudes contain a significant fraction of snow derived from vapor originating in the Mediterranean region, driven by the mid-latitude westerlies known as western disturbances.     

Relative role of sea surface temperature and snow on Indian summer monsoon seasonal simulation using a GCM

Indian summer monsoon is a global scale phenomenon controlled by different land, ocean, and atmospheric parameters. Sea surface temperature (SST) and snow are two of the major parameters, which may alter the spatial and temporal patterns of circulation and rainfall during Indian summer monsoon. In the current paper, we study the monsoon variability using long integrations (20 years) of the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD) Spectral model at T80L18 resolution with observed and climatological SST and snow. Study shows response of IITD GCM in simulating the Indian summer monsoon rainfall and circulation relative to the snow and SST as boundary conditions. The model’s response to SST and snow is examined by conducting four types of experiments by varying observed and climatological values of snow and SST. This paper discusses the seasonal total rainfall for country as a whole and 850 and 200 hPa wind for the period of 20 years starting from 1985 to 2004. The model has been integrated in the ensemble mode with five different initial conditions from the last week of April and first week of May. The model is able to capture the climatological patterns of seasonal total rainfall and averaged wind at lower and upper levels. Observed snow in the presence of climatological SST as a boundary condition shows much impact on rainfall and circulation than observed SST in the presence of climatological snow. Model performance is good in simulating the normal and excess monsoon conditions; it shows poor skill in capturing deficit monsoon years.     

Mapping of hydrothermally altered zones in Aravalli Supergroup of rocks around Dungarpur and Udaipur,India, using Landsat-8 OLI and spectroscopy

We explored the utilization of Landsat-8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) data for mapping of hydrothermal alteration zones. The region in and around the cities of Dungarpur and Udaipur of Rajasthan state in India was selected for this study. The rock types of Dungarpur and Udaipur are serpentinites, talc-carbonate, talc-schist, and quartzite of the Aravalli Supergroup. Hydrothermally altered zones and resultant hydrous minerals play an important role in the genesis of these rocks. We aimed to identify possible locations of hydrothermally altered zones in regional context around Dungarpur and Udaipur using Landsat-8 OLI data. False-color composite maps and band ratios were prepared from Landsat-8 bands. Band ratios such as band 6/band 7 (short-wave infrared 1 (SWIR1)/short wave infrared 2 (SWIR2)), band 4/band 3 (red/green), and band 5/band 6 (near infrared (NIR)/SWIR1) and visual interpretation techniques were used to identify the hydrothermally altered zones. Spectroscopic analyses of field rock samples were done to validate the hydrothermal alteration zones delineated from the analysis of Landsat-8 data. We present the combined results of Landsat-8 and field spectroradiometer analysis which brings out the hydrothermal alteration zones associated with hydrous minerals (antigorite, lizardite, montmorillonite, vermiculite, talc, and saponite). The study demonstrates the utility Landsat-8 OLI (with field spectroradiometer data) in the mapping of hydrothermally altered zones as a key in understanding geological processes.     

Waves off Puducherry, Bay of Bengal, during cyclone THANE

We studied the wave characteristics during the very severe cyclonic storm THANE which crossed the east coast of India between Puducherry and Cuddalore based on waves measured at a location in Bay of Bengal at 14 m water depth. Objective of the paper is to document the highest wave height measured in the nearshore waters of east coast of India. On 29 December 2011, cyclone passed within 77–315 km of the wave measurement location with maximum wind speed of 46.3 m/s (90 knots) and resulted in maximum wave height of 8.1 m. Maximum wave height recorded is 0.54 times the water depth, and the ratio of crest height to wave height of the highest wave recorded is 0.65. Maximum value of significant wave height estimated using the parametric wave model for deep-water conditions is 6.4 m, whereas the measured value is 6 m indicating that parametric wave model estimates the wave height reasonably well (within 8 % error) during the cyclone period.     

基于Landsat-8影像的北极地区入海冰川流速监测

Landsat-8 OLI因其空间分辨率较高、重复周期适中、高辐射分辨率、高图像获取率(图像质量)的特点,在北极地区大范围冰川流速监测研究中有较大优势.利用2017/2018年格陵兰岛、斯瓦尔巴群岛、北地群岛、法兰士约瑟夫地群岛、德文岛5处北极区域的Landsat-8全色波段数据,采用特征追踪方法提取入海冰川消融期流速...     

A MODIS-based modeling scheme for the estimation of downward surface shortwave radiation under cloud-free conditions

Atmospheric aerosol optical depth (AOD) plays an important role in radiation modeling and partly determines the accuracy of estimated downward surface shortwave radiation (DSSR). In this study, Iqbal’s model C was used to estimate DSSR under cloud-free conditions over the Koohin and Chitgar sites in Tehran, Iran; the estimated DSSR was based on (1) our proposed hybrid modeling scheme where the AOD is retrieved using the Simplified Aerosol Retrieval Algorithm (SARA), ground-based measurements at the AERONET site in Zanjan and (2) the AOD from the Terra MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor. Several other Terra MODIS land and atmospheric products were also used as input data, including geolocation properties, water vapor, total ozone, surface reflectance, and top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiance. SARA-based DSSR and MODIS-based DSSR were evaluated with ground-based DSSR measurements at the Koohin and Chitgar sites in 2011 and 2013, respectively; the averaged statistics for SARA-based DSSR [R ² ≈ 0.95, RMSE ≈ 22 W/m² (2.5% mean value), and bias ≈ 3 W/m²] were stronger than those for MODIS-based DSSR [R ² ≈ 0.79, RMSE ≈ 51 W/m² (5.8% mean value), and bias ≈ 34 W/m²]. These results show that the proposed hybrid scheme can be used at regional to global scales under the assumption of future access to spatially distributed AERONET sites. Additionally, the robustness of this modeling scheme was exemplified by estimating the aerosol radiative forcing (ARF) during a dust storm in Southwest Asia. The results were comparable to those of previous studies and showed the strength of our modeling scheme.     

Response of west Indian coastal regions and Kavaratti lagoon to the November-2009 tropical cyclone Phyan

Response of the coastal regions of eastern Arabian Sea (AS) and Kavaratti Island lagoon in the AS to the tropical cyclonic storm `Phyan??, which developed in winter in the south-eastern AS and swept northward along the eastern AS during 9?C12 November 2009 until its landfall at the northwest coast of India, is examined based on in situ and satellite-derived measurements. Wind was predominantly south/south-westerly and the maximum wind speed (U<sub>10</sub>) of ~16 m/s occurred at Kavaratti Island region followed by ~8 m/s at Dwarka (Gujarat) and ~7 m/s at Diu (located south of Dwarka) as well as two southwest Indian coastal locations (Mangalore and Malpe). All other west Indian coastal sites recorded maximum wind speed of ~5?C6 m/s. Gust factor (i.e., gust-to-speed ratio) during peak storm event was highly variable with respect to topography, with steep hilly stations (Karwar and Ratnagiri) and proximate thick and tall vegetation-rich site (Kochi) exhibiting large values (~6), whereas Island station (Kavaratti) exhibiting ~1 (indicating consistently steady wind). Rainfall in association with Phyan was temporally scattered, with the highest 24-h accumulated precipitation (~60 mm) at Karwar and ~45 mm at several other west Indian coastal sites. Impact of Phyan on the west Indian coastal regions was manifested in terms of intensified significant waves (~2.2 m at Karwar and Panaji), sea surface cooling (~5°C at Calicut), and moderate surge (~50 cm at Verem, Goa). The surface waves were south-westerly and the peak wave period (T <sub>p</sub>) shortened from ~10?C17 s to ~5?C10 s during Phyan, indicating their transition from the long-period `swell?? to the short-period `sea??. Reduction in the spread of the mean wave period (T _z) from ~5?C10 s to a steady period of ~6 s was another manifestation of the influence of the cyclone on the surface wave field. Several factors such as (1) water piling-up at the coast supported by south/south-westerly wind and seaward flow of the excess water in the rivers due to heavy rains, (2) reduction of piling-up at the coast, supported by the upstream penetration of seawater into the rivers, and (3) possible interaction of upstream flow with river run-off, together resulted in the observed moderate surge at the west Indian coast. Despite the intense wind forcing, Kavaratti Island lagoon experienced insignificantly weak surge (~7 cm) because of lack of river influx and absence of a sufficiently large land boundary required for the generation and sustenance of wave/wind-driven water mass piling-up at the land?Csea interface.     

CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> flux variation and its contribution area in the debris-covered area of Koxkar Glacier,Mt. Tianshan in China

During the formation and development of glacial meltwater runoff, hydrochemical erosion is abundant, especially the hydrolysis of K/Na feldspar and carbonates, which can consume H⁺ in the water, promote the formation of bicarbonate by dissolving atmospheric CO₂, and affect the regional carbon cycle. From July 21, 2015, to July 18, 2017, the CO₂ concentration and flux were observed by the eddy covariance (EC) method in the relatively flat and open moraine cover area of Koxkar Glacier in western Mt. Tianshan, China. We found that: (1) atmospheric CO₂ fluxes ranged from ??408.95 to 81.58 mmol m^?2 day^?1 (average ? 58.68 mmol m^?2 day^?1), suggesting that the study area is a significant carbon sink, (2) the CO₂ flux footprint contribution areas were primarily within 150 m of the EC station, averaging total contribution rates of 93.30%, 91.39%, and 90.17% of the CO₂ flux in the snow accumulation, snow melting, and glacial melting periods, respectively. Therefore, the contribution areas with significant influences on CO₂ flux observed at EC stations were concentrated, demonstrating that grassland CO₂ flux around the glaciers had little effect at the EC stations, (3) in the predominant wind direction, under stable daytime atmospheric stratification, the measurement of CO₂ flux, as interpreted by the Agroscope Reckenholz Tanikon footprint tool, was 79.09% ± 1.84% in the contribution area. This was slightly more than seen at night, but significantly lower than the average under unstable atmospheric stratification across the three periods of interest (89%). The average distance of the farthest point of the flux footprint under steady state atmospheric conditions was 202.61?±?69.33 m, markedly greater than that under non-steady state conditions (68.55?±?10.34 m). This also indicates that the CO₂ flux observed using EC was affected primarily by hydrochemical erosion reactions in the glacier area, (4) a good negative correlation was found between net glacier exchange (NGE) of CO₂ and air temperature on precipitation-free days. Strong ice and snow ablation could promote hydrochemical reactions of soluble substances in the debris area and accelerated sinking of atmospheric CO₂. Precipitation events might reduce snow and ice melting, driven by reduced regional temperatures. However, a connection between NGE and precipitation, when less than 8.8 mm per day, was not obvious. When precipitation was greater than 8.8 mm per day, NGE decreased with increasing precipitation, (5) graphically, the slope of NGE, related to daily runoff, followed a trend: snow melting period?>?snow accumulation period?>?early glacial ablation period?>?late glacier ablation period?>?dramatic glacier ablation period. The slope was relatively large during snow melting, likely because of CO₂ sinking caused by water–rock interactions. The chemical reaction during elution in the snow layer might also promote atmospheric CO₂ drawdown. At the same time, the damping effect of snow cover and the almost-closed glacier hydrographic channel inhibited the formation of regional runoff, possibly providing sufficient time for the chemical reaction, thus promoting further CO₂ drawdown.     

Tectonics in the Cuddapah fold-thrust belt in the Indian shield,Andhra Pradesh,India and its implication on the crustal amalgamation of India and Rayner craton of Antarctica during Neoproterozoic orogenesis

Neoproterozoic orogenesis in East Antarctica and India led to the amalgamation of northern Prince Charles Mountains-Rayner complex of Antarctica with the Krishna Province of India along the present eastern coast of India with the development of ~990–900 Ma old fold-thrust belt. The frontal part of the fold-thrust belt [henceforth called the Cuddapah fold-thrust belt (CFTB)], recognized in the intercratonic, Palaeoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic Cuddapah Basin, includes two frontal thrust sheets carried by the eastern Velikonda and the western Nallamalai thrusts, along with a part of the undeformed foreland, constituting frontal part of a larger fold-thrust belt now fragmented and separated in different continents of Gondwanaland. Therefore, the intercratonic deformation now preserved in the Palaeoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic Cuddapah Basin is related to the collision of the Indian shield to the Antarctic block during the amalgamation of the Rodinia Supercontinent. CFTB is dominated by quasi-plastic deformational structures, representing exhumed deeper level fault-propagation folding related to the Velikonda thrust, while the Nallamalai thrust represents the forelandward thrust of the CFTB dominated by elastico-frictional deformation structures.     

Seasonality in low latitudes during the Oxfordian (Late Jurassic) reconstructed via high-resolution stable isotope analysis of the oyster Actinostreon marshi (J. Sowerby, 1814) from the Kachchh Basin, western India

A high-resolution stable isotope (δ¹⁸O, δ¹³C) analysis of a specimen of the oyster Actinostreon marshi (J. Sowerby, 1814) from the Lower Oxfordian of the Kachchh Basin in western India was used to reconstruct average seasonal temperatures over a consecutive time interval of 10 years. The recorded temperatures during this period varied around a mean of 13 °C (maximum: 15.1 °C; minimum: 11.4 °C) with a generally low seasonality between 1 and 3 °C. Such weak seasonal changes can be expected from a subtropical palaeolatitude between 25° and 30°S. However, the low average temperatures are in contrast to studies on broadly contemporaneous fossils from Europe and the southern Malagasy Gulf which point to much warmer conditions in these areas. It is therefore proposed that the low temperatures in the Kachchh Basin are caused by upwelling currents which influenced the north-western coast of India during the Late Jurassic.     

Long-traveling landslides in deep snow conditions induced by the 2011 Nagano Prefecture earthquake,Japan

Earthquakes in mountainous areas may produce many landslides that involve abundant snow, but few observations have been made of these hazardous phenomena. The 12 March 2011 north Nagano Prefecture earthquake (M_JMA 6.7) occurred in a mountainous part of Japan that typically has an annual snow cover of more than 2 m, and it induced many snowy landslides. Some of these traveled relatively long distances. We examined the snowy Tatsunokuchi landslide to reconstruct the landsliding processes over deep snow. We infer that the Tatsunokuchi landslide occurred by collapse of a rock debris mass of 5?×?10⁴ m³ that plunged into the abundant snow, forming a mixture of snow and rock debris, which then traveled on top of the snow. Later, the displaced mass included a large amount of snow which was pushed forward at the front and to the sides. The velocity of the landslide was estimated to be approximately 14 m/s. It appears that the displaced mass, having only a small proportion of rock debris, had a low enough density to travel easily on top of the snow. Our observations suggest that there was much liquid water at the base of the displaced mass shortly after the event. Our results suggest that landslides may damage wider areas than expected if they travel over deep snow.     

Quantity and location of groundwater recharge in the Sacramento Mountains,south-central New Mexico (USA), and their relation to the adjacent Roswell Artesian Basin

The Sacramento Mountains and the adjacent Roswell Artesian Basin, in south-central New Mexico (USA), comprise a regional hydrologic system, wherein recharge in the mountains ultimately supplies water to the confined basin aquifer. Geologic, hydrologic, geochemical, and climatologic data were used to delineate the area of recharge in the southern Sacramento Mountains. The water-table fluctuation and chloride mass-balance methods were used to quantify recharge over a range of spatial and temporal scales. Extrapolation of the quantitative recharge estimates to the entire Sacramento Mountains region allowed comparison with previous recharge estimates for the northern Sacramento Mountains and the Roswell Artesian Basin. Recharge in the Sacramento Mountains is estimated to range from 159.86?×?10⁶ to 209.42?×?10⁶ m³/year. Both the location of recharge and range in estimates is consistent with previous work that suggests that ~75 % of the recharge to the confined aquifer in the Roswell Artesian Basin has moved downgradient through the Yeso Formation from distal recharge areas in the Sacramento Mountains. A smaller recharge component is derived from infiltration of streamflow beneath the major drainages that cross the Pecos Slope, but in the southern Sacramento Mountains much of this water is ultimately derived from spring discharge. Direct recharge across the Pecos Slope between the mountains and the confined basin aquifer is much smaller than either of the other two components.     

Groundwater budget for the upper and middle parts of the River Gash Basin, eastern Sudan

The River Gash Basin is filled by the Quaternary alluvial deposits, unconformably overlying the basement rocks. The alluvial deposits are composed mainly of unconsolidated layers of gravel, sand, silt, and clays. The aquifer is unconfined and is laterally bounded by the impermeable Neogene clays. The methods used in this study include the carry out of pumping tests and the analysis of well inventory data in addition to the river discharge rates and other meteorological data. The average annual discharge of the River Gash is estimated to be 1,056?×?10⁶ m³ at El Gera gage station (upstream) and 587?×?10⁶ m³ at Salam-Alikum gage station (downstream). The annual loss mounts up to 40% of the total discharge. The water loss is attributed to infiltration and evapotranspiration. The present study proofs that the hydraulic conductivity ranges from 36 to 105 m/day, whereas the transmissivity ranges from 328 to 1,677 m²/day. The monitoring of groundwater level measurements indicates that the water table rises during the rainy season by 9 m in the upstream and 6 m in the midstream areas. The storage capacity of the upper and middle parts of the River Gash Basin is calculated as 502?×?10⁶ m³. The groundwater input reach 386.11?×?10⁶ m³/year, while the groundwater output is calculated as 365.98?×?10⁶ m³/year. The estimated difference between the input and output water quantities in the upper and middle parts of the River Gash Basin demonstrates a positive groundwater budget by about 20?×?10⁶ m³/year     

Ionospheric disturbances with the time of occurrence, magnitude and location of the earthquake (M6.5) near the Indian subcontinent

The present study purports the analysis of total electron content (TEC, which is one of the major ionosphere anomalies during the earthquake), sea surface temperature (SST) and outgoing long-wave radiation (OLR) during the earthquake event recorded on 10 March 2013 (M = 6.5). Global assimilative ionosphere modelled output TEC values have been used for this present study; the clear signature of TEC during the recorded earthquake has been noticed (i.e. increase in TEC 60–70 TECU during the event). The correlation between the magnitude and location of earthquake with TEC is around 0.9, and the least correlation between SST and OLR is due to concerned atmospheric effects; we tried to study the variations of SST and OLR prior during and after the event from Kalpana satellite image products archived by IMD.     

Temporal variability of diverse mountain permafrost slope movements derived from multi-year daily GPS data,Mattertal, Switzerland

In this study, high resolution surface measurements of diverse slope movements are compared to environmental factors such as ground surface temperature (GST) and snow cover, in order to reveal and compare velocity fluctuations caused by changing environmental conditions. The data cover 2 years (2011–2013) of Global Positioning System (GPS) and GST measurements at 18 locations on various slope movement types within an alpine study site in permafrost (Mattertal, Switzerland). Velocities have been estimated based on accurate daily GPS solutions. The mean annual velocities (MAV) observed at all GPS stations varied between 0.006 and 6.3 ma^?1. MAV were higher in the period 2013 compared to 2012 at all stations. The acceleration in 2013 was accompanied by a longer duration of the snow cover and zero curtain and slightly lower GST. The amplitude (0–600 %) and the timing of the intra-annual variability were generally similar in both periods. At most stations, an annual cycle in the movement signal was observed, with a phase lag of 1–4 months to GST. Maximum velocity typically occurred in late summer and autumn, and minimum velocity in late winter and beginning of spring. The onset of acceleration always started in spring during the snowmelt period. At two stations located on steep rock glacier tongues, overprinted on the annual cycle, short-term peaks of velocity increase, occurred during the snowmelt period, indicating a strong influence of meltwater.