The Dynamic and Thermodynamic Effects of Relative and Absolute Sea Surface Temperature on Tropical Cyclone Intensity

Several numerical experiments were performed to investigate the dynamic and thermodynamic effects of sea surface temperature(SST) on tropical cyclone(TC) intensity.The results reveal that the relative SST within a radius of 2-3 times the radius of maximum wind contributes positively and greatly to TC intensity,while the remote SST far away from the TC center could reduce storm intensity.The change of air-sea temperature and moisture differences may be the reason why TC intensity is more sensitive to the relative rather than the absolute SST.As the inflow air moves toward the eyewall,warmer(colder) remote SST can gradually increase(decrease) the underlying surface air temperature and moisture,and thus decrease(increase) the air-sea temperature and moisture differences,which lead to less(more) energy fluxes entering the eyewall and then decrease(increase) the TC intensity and make it less sensitive to the absolute SST change.Finally,with all the related dynamic and thermodynamic processes being taken into account,a schematic diagram for the effects of relative SST and absolute SST on TC intensity is proposed.     

热带气旋强度与结构研究新进展

主要回顾热带气旋(TC)强度与结构变化的研究发展近况。以往热带气旋的理论研究认为在给定的大气和海洋热状况下,存在着一个TC所能达到的最大可能强度(MPI)。但实际上,海洋生成的热带气旋达到的最大强度普遍要比由MPI理论计算得到最大强度要低。近几年的研究表明,存在着内部和外部的不利因子通过对TC结构的改变来阻碍其加强,从而限制TC的强度。以往认为在诸多因子中,垂直风切变产生的内核区非对称结构与眼墙区下方海水上涌造成的海面冷却是制约TC达到MPI的主要因子。最新的研究进一步指出,产生TC非对称性的中尺度过程对其强度与结构的变化至关重要。中尺度过程包含有对流耦合的涡旋Rossby波、内外圈螺旋雨带、嵌于TC环流内的中尺度涡旋。外部的环境气流也是通过这些眼墙的中尺度过程影响到TC的强度与结构变化。     

Effect of Horizontal Nonuniformity of Diabatic Heating on Tropical Cyclone Intensity and Structure

1. IntroductionMuch attention has been paid to the role playedby diabatic heating in the genesis and intensificationof tropical cyclone (TC). Based on a two-dimensionalprimitive equation model, Li (1984) proposed that theevolution of TC should be different if the maximumheating appears at different height. Yang et al. (1995)found that abrupt intensification of TC at the mid-latitudes is closely related to the vertical structure ofconvective heating. May and Holland (1998) suggestedthat the…     

The Uncertainty of Tropical Cyclone Intensity and Structure Based on Different Parameterization Schemes of Planetary Boundary Layer

Based on different parameterization schemes of planetary boundary layer (PBL), the uncertainty of intensity and structure of the Super-strong Typhoon Rammasun (1409) is investigated using the WRF model (v3.4) with six PBL parameterization schemes. Results indicate that PBL uncertainty leads to the uncertainty in tropical cyclone (TC) prediction, which increases with forecast time. The uncertainty in TC prediction is mainly reflected in the uncertainty in TC intensity, with significant differences in the TC intensity forecasts using various PBL schemes. The uncertainty in TC prediction is also reflected in the uncertainty in TC structures. Greater intensity is accompanied by smaller vortex width, tighter vortex structure, stronger wind in the near-surface layer and middle and lower troposphere, stronger inflow (outflow) wind at the lower (upper) levels, stronger vertical upward wind, smaller thickness of the eye wall, smaller outward extension of the eye wall, and warmer warm core at the upper levels of eye. PBL height, surface upward heat flux and water vapor flux are important factors that cause the uncertainty in TC intensity and structure. The more surface upward heat flux and water vapor flux and the lower PBL height, the faster TC development and the stronger TC intensity.     

Reduced Sensitivity of Tropical Cyclone Intensity and Size to Sea Surface Temperature in a Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Environment

It has been challenging to project the tropical cyclone(TC) intensity,structure and destructive potential changes in a warming climate.Here,we compare the sensitivities of TC intensity,size and destructive potential to sea surface warming with and without a pre-storm atmospheric adjustment to an idealized state of Radiative-Convective Equilibrium(RCE).Without RCE,we find large responses of TC intensity,size and destructive potential to sea surface temperature(SST) changes,which is in line with some previous studies.However,in an environment under RCE,the TC size is almost insensitive to SST changes,and the sensitivity of intensity is also much reduced to 3%?C-1–4%?C-1.Without the pre-storm RCE adjustment,the mean destructive potential measured by the integrated power dissipation increases by about 25%?C-1 during the mature stage.However,in an environment under RCE,the sensitivity of destructive potential to sea surface warming does not change significantly.Further analyses show that the reduced response of TC intensity and size to sea surface warming under RCE can be explained by the reduced thermodynamic disequilibrium between the air boundary layer and the sea surface due to the RCE adjustment.When conducting regional-scale sea surface warming experiments for TC case studies,without any RCE adjustment the TC response is likely to be unrealistically exaggerated.The TC intensity–temperature sensitivity under RCE is very similar to those found in coupled climate model simulations.This suggests global mean intensity projections under climate change can be understood in terms of a thermodynamic response to temperature with only a minor contribution from any changes in large-scale dynamics.     

Effects of Sea Spray Evaporation and Dissipative Heating on Intensity and Structure of Tropical Cyclone

To examine effects of sea spray evaporation and dissipative heating on structure and intensity of a real tropical cyclone,the sea spray flux parameterization scheme was incorporated into the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University-National Center for Atmospheric Research Mesoscale Model(MM5).Sensitivity tests were performed with varying the spray source function intensities and with and without dissipation heating.The numerical results indicate that sea spray evaporation increases the interfacial sensible heat flux,which is increased by 16% for the moderate spray and 47% for the heavy spray,but has little effect on the interfacial latent heat flux.The net effect of sea spray evaporation is to decrease the total sensible heat flux and to increase the total latent heat flux.The total enthalpy flux is increased by 1% and 12% with moderate and strong spray amounts,respectively.Consistent with these results,the intensity of the tropical cyclone is increased by 5% and 16% in maximum 10-m wind speed,respectively,due to sea spray evaporation.Sea spray evaporation and dissipative heating modify the tropical cyclone structure in important but complex ways.The effect of sea spray on the near-surface temperature and moisture depends on the spray amounts and its location within the tropical cyclone.Within the high-wind region of a tropical cyclone,the lower atmosphere becomes cooler and moister due to the evaporation of sea spray.However,the dissipative heating offsets the cooling due to sea spray evaporation,which makes the lower atmosphere warmer.     

Impact of Surface Exchange Coefficients and Sea Surface Cooling on Tropical Cyclone Simulation

The surface flux exchange associated with the exchange coefficients and upper ocean conditions is essential to the development of tropical cyclones (TCs). Using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, the present study has investigated the impact of exchange coefficients and ocean coupling during Super Typhoon Saomai (2006). Firstly, two experiments with different formula of roughness are conducted. The experiment with the Donelan formula for drag coefficient (Cd) and ramped formula for enthalpy coefficient (Ck) can simulate stronger intensity compared to other experiments due to the increased surface wind and enthalpy fluxes. That is because the new formulas allows for a smaller Cd and larger Ck in the high wind regime than the former formulas did. Moreover, two coupled simulations between WRF and a one-dimensional ocean model are conducted to examine the feedback of sea surface cooling to the TC. In the experiments with a horizontal uniform mixed layer depth of 70 m, the sea surface cooling is too weak to change the evolution of TC. While in the experiment with an input mixed layer calculated using the Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model (HYCOM) data, the significant sea surface cooling induces obvious impact on TC intensity and structure. Under the negative feedback of sea surface cooling, the sensible and latent heat fluxes decreases, especially in the right part of Saomai (2006). The negative feedback with coupled ocean model plays a vital role in simulating the intensity and structure of TC.     

Influence of Sea Surface Temperature on the Predictability of Idealized Tropical Cyclone Intensity

The role of sea surface temperature (SST) forcing in the development and predictability of tropical cyclone (TC) intensity is examined using a large set of idealized numerical experiments in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. The results indicate that the onset time of rapid intensification of TC gradually decreases, and the peak intensity of TC gradually increases, with the increased magnitude of SST. The predictability limits of the maximum 10 m wind speed (MWS) and minimum sea level pressure (MSLP) are ~72 and ~84 hours, respectively. Comparisons of the analyses of variance for different simulation time confirm that the MWS and MSLP have strong signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) from 0-72 hours and a marked decrease beyond 72 hours. For the horizontal and vertical structures of wind speed, noticeable decreases in the magnitude of SNR can be seen as the simulation time increases, similar to that of the SLP or perturbation pressure. These results indicate that the SST as an external forcing signal plays an important role in TC intensity for up to 72 hours, and it is significantly weakened if the simulation time exceeds the predictability limits of TC intensity.     

台风异常运动及其外区热力不稳定非对称结构的影响效应

本文数值模拟研究揭示了台风外区热力不稳定非对称结构对其异常路径的影响问题，提出了台风运动非对称结构的影响，不仅表现在台风涡旋动力结构特征上，而且反映在台风外区三维非对称热力结构特点方面，即包括温、湿不稳定层结分布特征及其强弱程度因素。台风外区不同热力非对称分布特征将导致台风移动轨迹的显著差异，且构成各类“旋转”、“打转”、“转向”等复杂异常路径。     

Comparison of Three Tropical Cyclone Intensity Datasets

Analyzed in this paper are the 16-yr (1988-2003) tropical cyclone (TC) intensity data from three major forecast centers of the western North Pacific, i.e., China Meteorological Administration (CMA), Regional Specialized Meteorological Center Tokyo (RSMC Tokyo), and Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) of the United States. Results show that there are significant discrepancies (at 1% significance level) in the intensity of TCs among the three centers, with a maximum difference for the same TC over 30 m s-1. The flight reconnaissance over TC can minish the discrepancy to some extent. A climatic and persistent prediction model is set up to study the impact of initial data from different forecast centers on the prediction of TC intensity. It is obtained that the root mean square error (RMSE) of a 4-yr independent test is the largest using data from JTWC, while the smallest using data from RSMC Tokyo. Average absolute deviation in 24-h intensity prediction is 2.5 m s-1 between CMA and RSMC Tokyo data, and 4.0 m s-1 between CMA and JTWC data, with a maximum deviation reaching 21 m s-1. Such a problem in the initial value increases the difficulty in intensity prediction of TCs over the western North Pacific.     

A Western North Pacific Tropical Cyclone Intensity Prediction Scheme

A western North Pacific tropical cyclone (TC) intensity prediction scheme (WIPS) is developed based on TC samples from 1996 to 2002 using the stepwise regression technique, with the western North Pacific divided into three sub-regions: the region near the coast of East China (ECR), the South China Sea region (SCR), and the far oceanic region (FOR). Only the TCs with maximum sustained surface wind speed greater than 17.2 m s-1 are used in the scheme. Potential predictors include the climatology and persistence factors, synoptic environmental conditions, potential intensity of a TC and proximity of a TC to land. Variances explained by the selected predictors suggest that the potential intensity of a TC and the proximity of a TC to land are significant in almost all the forecast equations. Other important predictors include vertical wind shear in ECR, 500-hPa geopotential height anomaly at the TC center, zonal component of TC translation speed in SCR, intensity change of TC 12 or 24 h prior to initial time, and the longitude of TC center in FOR. Independent tests are carried out for TCs in 4 yr (2004-2007), with mean absolute errors of the maximum surface wind being 3.0, 5.0, 6.5, 7.3, 7.6, and 7.9 m s-1 for 12- to 72-h predictions at 12-h intervals, respectively. Positive skills are obtained at all leading time levels as compared to the climatology and persistence prediction scheme, and the large skill scores (near or over 20%) after 36 h imply that WIPS performs especially better at longer leading times. Furthermore, it is found that the amendment in TC track prediction and real-time model analysis can significantly improve the performance of WIPS in the SCR and ECR. Future improvements will focus on applying the scheme for weakening TCs and those near the coastal regions.     

Understanding of the Effect of Climate Change on Tropical Cyclone Intensity: A Review

The effect of climate change on tropical cyclone intensity has been an important scientific issue for a few decades.Although theory and modeling suggest the intensification of tropical cyclones in a warming climate,there are uncertainties in the assessed and projected responses of tropical cyclone intensity to climate change.While a few comprehensive reviews have already provided an assessment of the effect of climate change on tropical cyclone activity including tropical cyclone intensity,this review focuses mainly on the understanding of the effect of climate change on basin-wide tropical cyclone intensity,including indices for basin-wide tropical cyclone intensity,historical datasets used for intensity trend detection,environmental control of tropical cyclone intensity,detection and simulation of tropical cyclone intensity change,and some issues on the assessment of the effect of climate change on tropical cyclone intensity.In addition to the uncertainty in the historical datasets,intertwined natural variabilities,the considerable model bias in the projected large-scale environment,and poorly simulated inner-core structures of tropical cyclones,it is suggested that factors controlling the basin-wide intensity can be different from individual tropical cyclones since the assessment of the effect of climate change treats tropical cyclones in a basin as a whole.     

Dvorak技术估测热带气旋强度研究进展

在常规观测资料稀少的热带洋面上,卫星云图是监测热带气旋的主要工具。Dvorak技术通过一系列经验规则,将热带气旋在卫星云图中表现出来的云系结构特征及特定的参数同其发展强度联系起来。介绍了利用Dvorak技术估测热带气旋强度的研究背景和原理方法,总结了国内外在该领域的研究进展及其存在的优势和不足,指出Dvorak技术是目前业务化估测热带气旋强度的主要工具,同时展望了该技术未来的发展方向。     

用数字云图确定热带气旋强度的原理和方法

本文采用数字云图资料，分析热带气旋强度与热带气旋中云系结构的关系，提出了云系结构紧密度因子的概念并用云带旋转的圈数表示热带气旋强度的方法。本文对原有关于热带气旋中云系结构的某些因子的取值作了适当调整， 改进了用增强红外云图确定热带气旋强度的方法。 经过对2446组样本的拟合，热带气旋强度最大风速估计值的平均绝对误差为2.48 m/s。本方法可以实现人机交互，能更客观地作出定量估计。对1993年12个热带气旋检验，最大风速平均绝对误差为2.31 m/s。     

Importance of Air-Sea Coupling in Simulating Tropical Cyclone Intensity at Landfall

An atmosphere-only model system for making seasonal prediction and projecting future intensities of landfalling tropical cyclones (TCs) along the South China coast is upgraded by including ocean and wave models. A total of 642 TCs have been re-simulated using the new system to produce a climatology of TC intensity in the South China Sea. Detailed comparisons of the simulations from the atmosphere-only and the fully coupled systems reveal that the inclusion of the additional ocean and wave models enable differential sea surface temperature responses to various TC characteristics such as translational speed and size. In particular, interaction with the ocean does not necessarily imply a weakening of the TC, with the coastal bathymetry possibly playing a role in causing a near-shore intensification of the TC. These results suggest that to simulate the evolution of TC structure more accurately, it is essential to use an air-sea coupled model instead of an atmosphere-only model.     

利用神经网络方法建立热带气旋强度预报模型

以神经网络方法为基础,建立西北太平洋热带气旋强度预测模型,模型首先进行历史相似热带气旋选择。从选择的样本出发,计算得到一组气候持续因子、天气学经验因子和动力学因子, 对这些因子采用逐步回归方法进行筛选,将筛选得到的因子同对应时效的热带气旋强度输入神经网络训练模块,从而得到优化的预测模型。从2004-2005年西北太平洋26个热带气旋过程对12,24,36,48,72h等不同预报时效分别进行的634,582,530,478,426次预测试验结果的统计来看,相对于线性回归模型预测水平,该模型显著降低了各时段的预测误差。从几个热带气旋个例的预测结果来看, 该模型对超强台风, 以及具有强度迅速加强、再次加强等特征的热带气旋过程均有很好的描述能力。     

近海热带气旋强度突变的垂直结构特征分析

应用1949～2003年共55年的《台风年鉴》和《热带气旋年鉴》资料以及NCEP/NCAR再分析资料, 给出热带气旋强度突变标准, 对中国近海突然增强和突然减弱的两组热带气旋进行合成分析和对比分析。结果表明, 近海热带气旋强度变化与南亚高压、 副热带高压的强度变化呈反相变化关系; 环境风垂直切变小于5 m/s是南海近海热带气旋突然增强的必要条件, 热带气旋强度突变对环境风垂直切变变化的响应时间为18～36 h; 热带气旋中心附近存在数值在 -6～6 m/s之间纬向分布的环境风垂直切变密集带, 在热带气旋突然增强时刻, 中心附近环境风垂直切变经向梯度最大; 风垂直切变在热带气旋突然增强过程中逐渐减弱, 而在热带气旋突然减弱过程中逐渐增强; 热带气旋中心附近是高低层相对涡度垂直切变的强负值区, 在热带气旋突然增强过程中相对涡度垂直切变逐渐减小, 在突然增强时刻最小。     

双热带气旋合并过程涡旋强度与吸引效应相关特征数值模拟

利用中尺度模式HWRF(Hurricane Weather Research and Forecast System)模拟双热带气旋"狮子山"(2010)与"南川"(2010)涡旋合并过程,并通过强度敏感性试验揭示两涡旋强度对合并过程的影响。分析表明:在两者的合并过程中,"狮子山"涡旋强度明显大于"南川";"狮子山"涡旋对"南川"涡旋具有更大的"吸引"效应,两者西侧呈相对强的能量、水汽"连体"通道。HWRF能够较好的模拟出双热带气旋"狮子山"与"南川"的强度、移动路径,尤其是两涡旋的合并过程。进一步分析控制试验双热带气旋水平与垂直结构揭示出两涡旋"互旋"过程中,"弱涡旋"并入"强涡旋"相互影响特征。有关"狮子山"与"南川"强度的敏感试验亦表明,两者各自涡旋强度"合并方向"具有关键影响。在敏感性试验中,改变涡旋强度后两者路径亦存在"互旋"现象,但与控制试验两涡旋"合并方向"相反,即敏感性试验热带气旋"狮子山"涡旋削弱,而"南川"涡旋强度相对增强,导致原涡旋西侧水汽、能量输送连体通道明显削弱,同时由于"南川"涡旋的强度强于"狮子山",两者东侧水汽、能量输送通道亦加强,导致"南川"涡旋对"狮子山"的涡旋存在"吸引"效应。"狮子山"涡旋残留云带一部分合并入"南川",一部分则随西南气流进入台风"圆规"。     

台风强度模拟的海温目标观测研究

根据非线性强迫奇异向量(NFSV)型海温(SST)强迫误差识别的敏感性特征,通过观测系统模拟试验(OSSE)确定了12个热带气旋(TC)的强度模拟的海温目标观测最优布局。NFSV型SST强迫误差敏感区一般沿着台风移动路径,主要位于台风快速增强阶段。结果表明,在NFSV型SST强迫目标观测敏感区内以90km间隔加密海温观测,这些额外观测能够更加有效地改善TC强度的模拟技巧;与空间范围更大的非敏感区相比,在NFSV型SST强迫目标观测敏感区内进行目标观测,能够更加有效地改进TC强度的模拟能力,而当非敏感区内的局地观测区域逐步接近目标观测敏感区时,该局地区域的加密观测对TC强度模拟改善程度也逐步提高。进一步研究表明,上述目标观测对台风强度模拟水平的改善尤以NFSV型SST强迫误差大值区所对应的TC快速增强阶段最为明显。所以,在由NFSV型SST强迫误差确定的目标观测敏感区和敏感时段内加密观测,对台风强度模拟能力的提高最有效,而且在敏感区内以合适的间隔实施外场观测是最经济的观测策略。     

Uncertainty in Tropical Cyclone Intensity Predictions due to Uncertainty in Initial Conditions

Focusing on the role of initial condition uncertainty, we use WRF initial perturbation ensemble forecasts to investigate the uncertainty in intensity forecasts of Tropical Cyclone(TC) Rammasun(1409), which is the strongest TC to have made landfall in China during the past 50 years. Forecast results indicate that initial condition uncertainty leads to TC forecast uncertainty, particularly for TC intensity. This uncertainty increases with forecast time, with a more rapid and significant increase a...