On the determination of the Hermaean magnetic moment: A critical review

The determination of Mercury's magnetic moment from the spatially and temporally limited observations obtained by the Mariner 10 mission is dependent upon the assumed nature of both the intrinsic planetary magnetic field and that of the magnetospheric current systems. In this paper the methods that have been used for this purpose are reviewed. The results that have been obtained are then considered in comparison with the constraints placed on the planetary field by the solar wind dynamic pressures and stand-off distances inferred from the Mariner 10 magnetic field data by Slavin and Holzer (1979) which are consistent with an effective dipole moment of 6 ± 2 × 10²² G cm³. It is found that the models which fit the observations with substantial quadrupole and octupole moments are not consistent with the magnetospheric boundary conditions, presumably owing to incorrect assumptions regarding the magnetopause position, incorrect assumptions regarding solar wind dynamic pressure, and/or averaging over temporal variations in the Mariner 10 data.     

Comparative outline of the region of interaction of the solar wind with the Ionosphere of Venus and Mars

The general features of the region of interaction of the solar wind with the ionosphere of Venus and Mars are compared using data obtained with the Mariner 5 and the Pioneer Venus Orbiter (PVO) spacecraft for Venus and with the Phobos II, the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) and the Mars Express spacecraft for Mars. Despite the overall weak intrinsic global magnetic field that is present in both planets there are significant differences in the manner in which the interplanetary magnetic field accumulates and is organized around and within their ionosphere. Such differences are unrelated to the crustal magnetic field remnants inferred from the MGS measurements around Mars. In fact, while in Venus and Mars there is a region in which the magnetic field becomes enhanced as it piles up in their plasma environment it is shown that such a region exhibits different regimes with respect to changes in the ion composition measured outside and within the ionosphere. At Venus the region of enhanced magnetic field intensity occurs in general above the ionopause which represents the boundary across which there is a change in the ion composition with dominant solar wind protons above and planetary O⁺ ions below. At Mars the region of enhanced magnetic field is located below a magnetic pileup boundary across which there is also a comparable change in the ion composition (solar wind protons above and planetary O⁺ ions below). It is argued that this difference in the relative position of the region of enhanced magnetic field with respect to that of a plasma boundary that separates different ion populations results from the peculiar response of the ionosphere of each planet to the oncoming solar wind dynamic pressure. While at Venus the peak ionospheric thermal pressure is in general sufficient to withhold the incident solar wind kinetic pressure there is a different response in Mars where the peak ionospheric thermal pressure is in general not large enough to deviate the solar wind. In this latter case the ionosphere is unable to force the solar wind to move around the ionosphere and as a result the oncoming electron population can reach low altitudes where it is influenced by neutral atmospheric particles (the solar wind proton population is replaced at the magnetic pileup boundary which marks the upper extent of the region where the interplanetary magnetic field becomes enhanced). Peculiar conditions are expected near the magnetic polar regions and over the terminator plane where the solar wind is directed along the sides of the planet.     

火星磁场和行星发电机理论

火星磁场是火星主要观测物理场之一,火星磁场研究对火星探索具有重要的科学意义.本文侧重介绍火星磁场探测所取得的主要成果,在介绍火星行星磁场起源的行星发电机理论的基础上,重点讨论了动力学机制、起始时间、停止的原因等关键性问题,并指出了研究中存在的一些问题.     

Model magnetosphere of Mercury

The paper presents a three-dimensional quantitative model of Mercury's magnetosphere based on the entire combined set of observational data obtained from the first and third encounters of Mariner 10 with Mercury. The model assumes that the surface magnetic field of the planet Mercury consists of a dipole, a quadrupole and an octupole. The dipole moment of Mercury is 2.4 × 10²² G cm³, tilted 2.3° from the normal to the planetary orbital plane and having the same directional sense as that of the Earth. The intensity of the quadrupole moment is approximately 45% of the dipole, and that of the octupole moment 29% of the dipole. The model meets four critical tests: (1) it produces the smallest residuals among all existing models, (2) it can reproduce the crossing of a tail current sheet by Mariner 10, (3) all planetary field lines are confined inside the model magnetosphere, and (4) the size of the model magnetosphere agrees well with the magnetopause crossings directly observed from Mariner 10. The model can also be used to explain two observational features: (1) the plasma characteristics observed in different regions of the magnetosphere, and (2) the regions of quiet and disturbed signatures directly observed from Mariner 10.     

A study of the Rima Sirsalis lunar magnetic anomaly

The source of the lunar magnetic anomaly associated with the Rima Sirsalis linear rille has been modelled using the vector field intensities due to arbitrary uniform magnetization in a rectangular prism. It is shown that in order to match the Apollo 16 subsatellite data, the lunar surface near the rille must have a vertical magnetization of 6–9 × 10⁻³ G if the anomaly is due to flux leakage from a gap in the crust with the dimensions of the rille. This is more than one order of magnitude larger than the magnetization of any lunar sample, but is comparable with the high magnetization recently deduced for the Reiner γ formation in Oceanus Procellarum. An alternative explanation is that Rima Sirsalis and its surroundings are the site of a vertical magnetization contrast of 10⁻⁵ – 10⁻⁴ G which is at least as wide as the rille and extends to a depth of tens of kilometers in the crust. A wider magnetic source reduces the required magnetization (or depth) proportionately, since to first order the field at high altitude is proportional to the magnetic dipole moment per unit length.     

Interaction of the solar wind with Mars from Mars Global Surveyor MAG/ER observations

The observations of the magnetometer/electron reflectometer (MAG/ER) investigation onboard the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) have greatly contributed to improve our understanding of the interaction of the solar wind with Mars. These observations established conclusively that a global dynamo-generated magnetic field does not exist at Mars, and that the interaction with solar wind is of the atmospheric type. This article reviews the most important results obtained from MGS MAG/ER on the study of two major features in the Mars solar wind interaction. The first feature is the occurrence of large-amplitude, highly coherent waves at the proton cyclotron frequency in the region upstream from the Martian bow shock. The second feature is the magnetic pileup boundary (MPB), a well-defined plasma boundary inside of which the planetary exospheric ions outnumber the solar wind ions. The study of these two elements is crucial to characterize the properties of the Martian exosphere. In addition, the occurrence of an MPB at comets and Venus reveals common processes to all these unmagnetized atmospheric bodies in spite of their different physical nature and characteristic scales.     

重、磁场三维傅里叶变换的若干问题

本文利用极限变换的概念,推导了质点的重力位及偶极子的磁位的三维傅里叶变换。在这个基础上,推导了任意形状物体的重、磁场的三维傅里叶变换的一般表达式。根据这些式子,讨论了文[1]中由三维谱求二维谱存在的问题,即对三维谱而言,不存在u²+v²+w²=0。     

The S pole distribution on magnetic grains in pyroxenite determined by magnetotactic bacteria

North-seeking bacteria (NSB) with 1 μm diameters migrate to the S pole only. They were applied to identify the S pole determination on a polished surface of magnetite-rich pyroxenite whose natural remanent magnetization (NRM) intensity was 5.64 × 10⁻³ Am² kg⁻¹. The microscopic observations were performed under dark-field illumination in a controlled magnetic field to 10 μT. The NSB formed clusters on limited areas of magnetite grains and scattered over the whole magnetite grains.

The NRM decreased to 1.02 × 10⁻⁵ Am² kg⁻¹ by alternating field (AF) demagnetization to 60 mT but no clusters appeared, while small populations of the NSB scattered on each grain. These scattered bacteria may gather toward the S pole resulting from magnetic domain walls.

When the sample acquired saturation isothermal remanent magnetization (SIRM) to 1 T, the NSB formed dense clusters at the opposite side to the applied field direction on the many grains as expected. This evidence indicated that the NSB can be useful micro-organisms for the determination of fine magnetic structures. Some grains also had NSB clusters at the edge of the grains toward the field direction or did not exhibit any clusters. The complicated distribution of the clusters (the S poles) may be explained by shape anisotropy of the magnetic grains.     

Natural remanent magnetization of carbonaceous chondrites

We have observed natural remanent magnetizations (NRM), ranging from 10⁻³ to 10⁻⁵ Gauss cm³/g, at least two orders of magnitude greater than 10⁻⁷, the noise level of our spinner magnetometer, in the carbonaceous chondrites, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld, Nogoya and Mighei. Preliminary alternating field demagnetization of two samples of Orgueil showed a moderate sized stable component of 10⁻⁴ Gauss cm³/g. Microscopic study reveals that a grey spinel oxide, Ni-Fe and an Fe sulphide are the principal opaque minerals in both Cold Bokkeveld and Orgueil; the oxide phase predominates in both, while the Ni-Fe is more visible in the former. Coercive force determinations in Orgueil and Cold Bokkeveld indicate single domain particles as the NRM carrier. These meteorites are suitable for the determination of the magnetic field intensity in the primary solar nebula.     

低轨道磁化等离子体中运动航天器等离子体鞘层特性

用二维静电粒子模拟程序研究了在低轨道磁化等离子体中航天器充电过程和等离子体鞘层结构．采用磁化等离子体流经航天器的物理模型,并且考虑零级对流电场的影响．结果表明航天器在低轨道空间飞行时,如果不考虑光电子流,航天器会在短时间内(ｔ＝５４ω_ｐｅ^－１,ω_ｐｅ是电子等离子体频率)快速充电到平衡电位。在不考虑航天器运动的情况下其周围等离子体鞘层结构是围绕航天器对称的,等离子体鞘层宽度约２．４个德拜（Ｄｅｂｙｅ）长度．当考虑航天器运动时,航天器的平衡负电位绝对值减小．且在背离航天器运动方向上等离子体鞘层宽度为８．３个德拜长度．磁场的增大使负的平衡电位绝对值变小,当航天器运动从平行于磁场方向转向垂直于磁场方向时,航天器负平衡电位的绝对值减小．     

CRRES/Ground-based multi-instrument observations of an interval of substorm activity

Observations are presented of data taken during a 3-h interval in which five clear substorm onsets/intensifications took place. During this interval ground-based data from the EISCAT incoherent scatter radar, a digital CCD all sky camera, and an extensive array of magnetometers were recorded. In addition data from the CRRES and DMSP spacecraft, whose footprints passed over Scandinavia very close to most of the ground-based instrumentation, are available. The locations and movements of the substorm current system in latitude and longitude, determined from ground and spacecraft magnetic field data, have been correlated with the locations and propagation of increased particle precipitation in the E-region at EISCAT, increased particle fluxes measured by CRRES and DMSP, with auroral luminosity and with ionospheric convection velocities. The onsets and propagation of the injection of magnetospheric particle populations and auroral luminosity have been compared. CRRES was within or very close to the substorm expansion phase onset sector during the interval. The onset region was observed at low latitudes on the ground, and has been confirmed to map back to within L=7 in the magnetotail. The active region was then observed to propagate tailward and poleward. Delays between the magnetic signature of the substorm field aligned currents and field dipolarisation have been measured. The observations support a near-Earth plasma instability mechanism for substorm expansion phase onset.     

Accretion, core formation, H and C evolution of the Earth and Mars

Recent understandings of planetary accretion have suggested that accumulation of a small number of large planetesimals dominates intermediate to final growth stages of the terrestrial planets, with impact velocity high enough to induce extensive melting of the planetesimal and target materials, resulting in formation of a large molten region in which gravitational segregation of silicate and metal, that is, core formation proceeds. In case of homogeneous accretion, volatiles contained in each planetesimal are likely subjected to partitioning among gas, silicate melt, and molten metallic iron at significantly high temperatures and pressures in such a massive molten region. Each phase would subsequently form the proto-atmosphere, -mantle, or-core, respectively. Such chemical reprocessing of H and C associated with core formation, which is followed by both degassing from mantle and atmospheric escape, may result in a diverse range of H₂O/CO₂ in planetary surface environments, which mainly depends on the H and C content relative to metallic iron in planetary building stones. This may explain inferred difference in volatile distribution between the Earth's (relatively H₂O-rich, CO₂-poor) and the martian (H₂O-poor, CO₂-rich) surface environments. Such volatile redistribution may be systematically described by using the retentivity of H₂O, ξ, defined as follows: ξ = 1 − ([CO]⁰ + 2[CH₄]⁰ + 2[C(gr)]⁰)/[H₂O]⁰, where [i]⁰ represents mol number of species i partitioned into non-metallic phases, that is, gas and silicate melt in impact-induced molten region. When ξ > 0.5, relatively H₂O-rich and CO₂-poor surface environment may eventually evolve, although a small portion of H₂O partitioned into the NON=metallic phases are possibly consumed by subsequent chemical reactions with reduced C-species with producing CO₂ and H₂. When ξ< 0.5, on the contrary, H₂O consumption by the above reactions and selective loss of H₂ to space may result in relative H₂O-depleted and CO₂-rich surface environment. Given the building stone composition by the two-component model by Ringwood (1977) and Wänke (1981), ξ is found to decrease with increasing the mixing fraction of the volatile-rich component: ξ > 0.5 for the mixing fraction smaller than about 15–20% and ξ < 0 for the mixing fraction larger than about 20–30%. This is not significantly dependent on temperature and pressure in molten region and H/C ratio in the building stone. The estimated mixing fraction of the volatile-rich component, about 10% for the Earth and 35% for Mars, is consistent with the observed difference in volatile distribution between the surfaces of both planets.     

基于SAMI2模式的电离层加热模拟

通过在SAMI2模式的电子能量方程中添加人工加热项,数值模拟了在加热条件下磁场线上电子温度与电子密度的扰动情况,并对比了不同加热条件下的扰动效应.结果表明,入射到电离层中的大功率无线电波与等离子体相互作用,能够有效造成整条磁场线上电子温度的升高而产生电子温度扰动,尤其是加热点处,温度可增加3倍多;由于电子温度升高,压力平衡受到破坏,引发等离子体扩散进而导致电子密度扰动;电子密度扰动使得垂直于磁场线的电子密度梯度发生变化,这有可能形成电离层管(Ionosphere duct);电子温度和电子密度的扰动幅度随着加热时间的推移而减小,即扰动逐渐趋于稳定.电子温度与密度的扰动与加热率存在一种非线性关系.     

Indirect evaluation of Mars Gravity Model 2011 using a replication experiment on Earth

Curtin University??s Mars Gravity Model 2011 (MGM2011) is a high-resolution composite set of gravity field functionals that uses topography-implied gravity effects at medium- and short-scales (??125 km to ??3 km) to augment the space-collected MRO110B2 gravity model. Ground-truth gravity observations that could be used for direct validation of MGM2011 are not available on Mars??s surface. To indirectly evaluate MGM2011 and its modelling principles, an as-close-as-possible replication of the MGM2011 modelling approach was performed on Earth as the planetary body with most detailed gravity field knowledge available. Comparisons among six ground-truth data sets (gravity disturbances, quasigeoid undulations and vertical deflections) and the MGM2011-replication over Europe and North America show unanimously that topography-implied gravity information improves upon space-collected gravity models over areas with rugged terrain. The improvements are ??55% and ??67% for gravity disturbances, ??12% and ??47% for quasigeoid undulations, and ??30% to ??50% for vertical deflections. Given that the correlation between space-collected gravity and topography is higher for Mars than Earth at spatial scales of a few 100 km, topography-implied gravity effects are more dominant on Mars. It is therefore reasonable to infer that the MGM2011 modelling approach is suitable, offering an improvement over space-collected Martian gravity field models.     

含菱铁矿砂岩磁性的初步研究

作为煤田盖层产出的中国内蒙古平庄J₃砂岩,其平均磁化率为60×10^-5（SI）;平均剩磁为5×10^-3A/m.经热退磁后,在磁化率、剩余磁化、等温剩磁曲线、粘滞剩磁及磁组构等方面都发生了明显的变化,出现一系列奇异磁特征.岩石透射光与反射光鉴定、物相热红外分析、差热分析、X射线衍射分析表明,该砂岩的胶结物为弱磁性的菱铁矿,它在逐步热退磁过程中逐渐变为磁铁矿,部分变为赤铁矿.并大致确定,该砂岩胶结物含量近50％.此外,对这种砂岩样品仔细地进行了常规方法的退磁试验,得到其特征剩磁方向,确定其J₃古地磁极位置为198.8°E,84.6°N(α₉₅=4.8,k=94.5).     

Fe isotope fractionation in iron meteorites: New insights into metal-sulphide segregation and planetary accretion

Magmatic iron meteorites are considered to be remnants of the metallic cores of differentiated asteroids, and may be used as analogues of planetary core formation. The Fe isotope compositions (δ^57/54Fe) of metal fractions separated from magmatic and non-magmatic iron meteorites span a total range of 0.39‰, with the δ^57/54Fe values of metal fractions separated from the IIAB irons (δ^57/54Fe 0.12 to 0.32‰) being significantly heavier than those from the IIIAB (δ^57/54Fe 0.01 to 0.15‰), IVA (δ^57/54Fe − 0.07 to 0.17‰) and IVB groups (δ^57/54Fe 0.06 to 0.14‰). The δ^57/54Fe values of troilites (FeS) separated from magmatic and non-magmatic irons range from − 0.60 to − 0.12‰, and are isotopically lighter than coexisting metal phases. No systematic relationships exist between metal-sulphide fractionation factor (Δ^57/54Fe_M-FeS = δ^57/54Fe_metal − δ^57/54Fe_FeS) metal composition or meteorite group, however the greatest Δ^57/54Fe_M-FeS values recorded for each group are strikingly similar: 0.79, 0.63, 0.76 and 0.74‰ for the IIAB, IIIAB, IAB and IIICD irons, respectively. Δ^57/54Fe_M-FeS values display a positive correlation with kamacite bandwidth, i.e. the most slowly-cooled meteorites, which should be closest to diffusive equilibrium, have the greatest Δ^57/54Fe_M-FeS values. These observations provide suggestive evidence that Fe isotopic fractionation between metal and troilite is dominated by equilibrium processes and that the maximum Δ^57/54Fe_M-FeS value recorded (0.79 ± 0.09‰) is the best estimate of the equilibrium metal-sulphide Fe isotope fractionation factor. Mass balance models using this fractionation factor in conjunction with metal δ^57/54Fe values and published Fe isotope data for pallasites can explain the relatively heavy δ^57/54Fe values of IIAB metals as a function of large amounts of S in the core of the IIAB parent body, in agreement with published experimental work. However, sequestering of isotopically light Fe into the S-bearing parts of planetary cores cannot explain published differences in the average δ^57/54Fe values of mafic rocks and meteorites derived from the Earth, Moon and Mars and 4-Vesta. The heavy δ^57/54Fe value of the Earth's mantle relative to that of Mars and 4-Vesta may reflect isotopic fractionation due to disproportionation of ferrous iron present in the proto-Earth mantle into isotopically heavy ferric iron hosted in perovskite, which is released into the magma ocean, and isotopically light native iron, which partitions into the core. This process cannot take place at significant levels on smaller planets, such as Mars, as perovskite is only stable at pressures > 23 GPa. Interestingly, the average δ^57/54Fe values of mafic terrestrial and lunar samples are very similar if the High-Ti mare basalts are excluded from the latter. If the Moon's mantle is largely derived from the impactor planet then the isotopically heavy signature of the Moon's mantle requires that the impacting planet also had a mantle with a δ^57/54Fe value heavier than that of Mars or 4-Vesta, which then implies that the impactor planet must have been greater in size than Mars.     

Grain size dependent potential for self generation of magnetic anomalies on Mars via thermoremanent magnetic acquisition and magnetic interaction of hematite and magnetite

Early in the history of planetary evolution portions of Martian crust became magnetized by dynamo-generated magnetic field. A lateral distribution of the secondary magnetic field generated by crustal remanent sources containing magnetic carriers of certain grain size and mineralogy is able to produce an ambient magnetic field of larger intensity than preexisting dynamo. This ambient field is capable of magnetizing portions of deeper crust that cools through its blocking temperatures in an absence of dynamo. We consider both magnetite (Fe₃O₄) and hematite (α-Fe₂O₃) as minerals contributing to the overall magnetization. Analysis of magnetization of magnetic minerals of various grain size and concentration reveals that magnetite grains less than 0.01 mm in size, and hematite grains larger than 0.01 mm in size can become effective magnetic source capable of magnetizing magnetic minerals contained in surrounding volume. Preexisting crustal remanence (for example ∼250 A/m relates to 25% of multi-domain hematite) can trigger a self-magnetizing process that can continue in the absence of magnetic dynamo and continue strengthening and/or weakening magnetic anomalies on Mars. Thickness of the primary magnetic layer and concentration of magnetic carriers allow specification of the temperature gradient required to trigger a self-magnetization process.     

火星感应磁场模型及其磁力线分布

本文利用火星具有电离层而无内禀磁场的特点以及它与太阳风相互作用的性质,通过适当的假设,建立了火星感应磁场模型.此模型建立如下,利用电流连续的特性: Δ·j=0 (j为感应电流)以及对火星磁层中的电流体系分布的合理假设给出电流,并由毕奥-萨伐尔定理得到火星周围的磁场强度的表达式;利用我们自编的磁力线跟踪程序由求得的磁场强度得到火星周围的磁力线分布.我们发现:利用此火星磁场模型得到的火星周围的磁力线分布与卫星观测的结果以及其他方法得到的结果符合的很好.     

Magnetotelluric measurements in Antarctica

During austral summer 1984–1985 magnetotelluric measurements were carried out in North Victoria Land, Antarctica. The magnetic field was measured by a three-component fluxgate magnetometer. Copper screens (50 cm × 50 cm) were used as electrodes for recording the electric field, connected to a two channel electrograph with an input impedance of 10¹² ω. Analogue data are digitized with 12 bit resolution by a data acquisition system. 1 Mb of solid state CMOS-RAM memory was used to store the data in the field until it could be played back onto 3.5 inch floppy discs during station control. All equipment is designed for low power consumption. In the field it is supplied by a battery, which is charged by solar panels. Time series of measured data are presented. The influence of the polar electrojet (PEJ) on the source fields is clearly seen by comparing 24-h time series with the position of the auroral oval at different times of the day. Despite the clear effect of the PEJ in the data, the calculated apparent resistivity and phase curves seem to be rather uninfluenced. Initial interpretations have led to a typical continental resistivity distribution, showing decreasing resistivity with increasing depth.