Diabatic wind speed profiles in coastal regions: Comparison of an internal boundary layer (IBL) model with observations

A model is presented to transform wind speed observations at a single height over sea or near the coast to any possible location and height in a topographic flat coastal region (up to distances of about 5 km from the coast and up to heights of 100 m). Only moderate and strong winds from the sea are considered, which are particularly important for wind energy applications. The model, called diabatic coast model, which is based on the well known internal boundary layer (IBL) concept and Monin-Obukhov similarity theory, describes the effects of the roughness transition from sea to land as well as the effect of stability on the shape of the profiles and the IBL growth. The predicted IBL heights are compared with published data.In the second part of this paper, the model is compared with measurements taken at the Maasvlakte location near the Dutch coast. It is shown that a neutral formulation of the IBL height is sufficient to model the overall mean wind speed with height, but that stability corrections are needed to describe the diurnal variations in wind speed properly. Finally, an application is given, where a single routine wind speed observation at the coast, combined with air-water temperature differences is used to predict the wind speed at 500m from the coast at heights of 10 and 53 m. The results are in good agreement with the measurements.     

气象探空火箭测风不确定度评估方法

本文在气象火箭测风反演数学模型基础上,通过误差分析理论和曲线拟合最小二乘原理,对大气风场反演结果不确定度的评估方法进行了研究.根据火箭探空仪在空中的运动规律,首先建立数学反演模型,推导得到风速和风向的计算公式;然后根据误差理论,推导得出反演风速和风向的不确定度表达式;基于多项式拟合方法,进一步推导得出拟合后的风速和风向...     

西藏改则地区雨季上对流层/下平流层大气垂直结构观测研究

利用中国第3次青藏高原大气科学试验2014年7-8月改则探空试验期间获取的每天3次观测的探空数据,对该地区对流层大气垂直结构进行了研究。结果表明：改则地区海拔高度17-19 km存在逆温现象;第一对流层顶平均高度16082 m,第二对流层顶平均高度16466 m,前者出现概率远高于后者,两类对流层顶的高度均与其对流层顶的温度、气压成反比。08、14和20时（北京时）的最大风速分别出现在11.8、12.6和12.1 km高度,风速分别为16.2、16.3和15.9 m/s,风向随高度顺时针变化,对应为暖平流,由下层西南风转为上层的东南风,17 km以上高度稳定成东北风,下层主导风为西南风。在约8 km的高度上存在一个最大相对湿度聚集区,从地面开始相对湿度随高度升高而增大（逆湿现象）,达到该聚集区后,随高度升高而减小。青藏高原西部雨季对流层顶折叠现象出现概率较低,可能与该季节高空急流或高空锋天气较少有关。     

东疆黑戈壁近地大气边界层气象要素季节变化规律

利用东疆红柳河黑戈壁下垫面陆气相互作用观测站2017年近地大气边界层梯度探测资料和红柳河气象站天气现象观测数据,分析该地区典型晴天条件下的近地层风速、温度和比湿的四季廓线特征。结果表明:四季近地层风廓线变化规律明显。典型晴天条件下,在0.5～4 m高度内风速随高度的增加而变大的速度较快,在4～32 m范围内,白天风速随高度增大较缓慢,但夜间出现快速增大;存在明显的夜间逆温,逆温层主要集中在4～32 m,冬季逆温强于夏季,晨间0.5～32 m间的温度差可达4.6℃,且红柳河四季的气温日较差均较大,秋季可达到15.7℃;夜间比湿高于白天,秋、冬季夜间逆湿层出现在10～32 m,其比湿差为0.15 g/kg左右,夏季无逆湿现象。     

广东博贺近海海面的一次冷空气过程强风特征分析

利用广东博贺离海岸6 km的一个海上100 m铁塔观测到的梯度资料,采用特征量分析方法,研究强冷空气过程海洋近地层强风的微观特征。结果表明：冷锋过境时,近地层的气象要素有明显的响应：温度骤降、风速加大、气压上升,风向有明显的转变;风向标准差和风速标准差在冷锋前、冷锋过境和冷锋后都有明显不同;冷锋过境大风湍流度为0.08,阵风系数为1.19;此次冷锋过境强风在时间上表现为周期0.5～1 h的低频阵性;在空间上,60 m附近存在近地层的最大风层。     

青岛沿海ASCAT卫星反演风场与浮标海岛实测风场的对比分析

本文通过对比检验2013年1月至2016年6月ASCAT卫星反演风场与青岛浮标海岛站实测10m风场资料,开展ASCAT卫星反演风场在青岛沿海的适用评估。结果表明:ASCAT反演风速整体偏大,风向偏左,但整体偏差均较小。ASCAT反演风场和浮标海岛站实测风场的风速和风向的整体偏差分别为1.6m/s和-9.6°,说明ASCAT反演风场在青岛沿岸有很好的适用性,比EC再分析资料能更细致地反映青岛沿岸的风场空间分布。从风速分级比较来看,风速越弱,卫星反演风速越接近站点实测风速,反演结果越好,而风向反演结果则反之。风速和风向的反演效果皆是晚上比早晨好。并且季节变化对风速反演效果影响不大,但是对风向反演效果有一定的影响,秋冬季节风向反演结果好于春夏季节。最后,对ASCAT反演风速分别进行线性回归订正、综合误差、风速等级误差和升降轨误差订正,发现线性回归订正结果最佳。     

风廓线雷达在高空风场分析中的应用

利用大连风廓线雷达高时空分辨率风场观测资料,统计2011年雷达站上空各层水平及垂直风速的分布特征.通过分析发现:最大水平风速通常出现在12 km上下,受高空急流的影响,各季节高空最大水平风速出现高度不同,4 km以下高空水平风速随高度的变化各月份存在一定差异,4 km以上至最大风速层,水平风速随高度的升高而增大,最大风速层以上至雷达测量的上限水平风速随高度增加先减小后增大;高空垂直风速在夏季较为明显,秋季次之,冬春季节最小;6月是全年月均垂直风速最大的月份,在500～1300 m高度层存在一个上升气流中心,平均风速大于0.6 m/s,2月各高度平均垂直风速全年最小.     

一次准静止锋影响下的昆明长水机场大雾过程分析

本文利用常规高空探测资料和长水机场自动探测资料,分析了2013年12月26~31日大雾天气过程出现的天气背景和气象要素特征,以找出昆明准静止锋影响下长水机场大雾天气的特征。分析表明,此次大雾过程出现了5次大雾天气,在冷空气西进加强、维持、减弱摆动阶段均可产生,其中冷空气维持阶段大雾持续时间最长。大雾时长水机场位于锋后或锋面附近冷空气区内。大雾发生时昆明上空多有双层逆温出现,逆温层底高度低,湿层较深厚,最大相对湿度在92%以上;大雾发生时长水机场为东北风,风速2~5m/s,风向转为西南风,能见度将很快转好。      

基于探空风资料的大气边界层不同高度风速变化研究

利用1981—2014年我国资料齐全的93个高空气象观测站(距离雷达300、600、900 m高度)的探空风资料,按照气象地理区划,借助GIS分析了边界层内不同高度风速及其趋势的时空变化,得到以下结论:300～900 m,东北和华北地区累年平均风速较大,西南和西北地区累年平均风速较小;边界层内各高度同一地区平均风速的月变化趋势基本一致,但各地区季节风速变化不同,同一地区月平均风速的年较差随高度上升而增大;300 m.各地区年平均风速均显著减小:在600和900 m.华北、西北、华中地区年平均风速呈增加趋势,东北地区年平均风速呈减小趋势,但均未通过显著性水平检验;各高度年平均风速空间分布均为东北地区较大,尤其大兴安岭和东北平原地带;从沿海到内陆,由东至西风速逐渐减小;在300 m.全国年平均风速以减小趋势为主;在600 m,全国大部分地区年平均风速呈增加趋势,尤其是中部、西北和华东沿海地区;在900 m高度,全国年平均风速变化趋势呈现由边界向内部的包围态势,中心地区呈增加趋势,边界地区均呈减小趋势,但是通过显著性水平检验的地区不多。     

夏季金塔边界层风、温度和湿度结构特征的初步分析

利用2004年6～7月在河西走廊金塔陆-气相互作用试验的观测资料,分析了该地区夏季夜间和中午风、温、湿的垂直结构特征,结果表明：夏季夜间,当地面风较小时,金塔绿洲高空可能为偏西风气流,夜间稳定层高度大致在100～190m。夏季中午,当低空为偏东风时,风速随高度的变化比较复杂。总的来说,存在着东风急流,急流高度在1000-4000m之间,大气边界层顶盖（即逆温层底）约在3000-3600m高度,在500-800m高度以下存在绿洲内边界层;当低空为偏北风或西北风时,高空都为偏西风或西北风气流,低空风速随高度的变化比较平缓,风速有时存在极大值,大气边界层顶盖（即逆温层底）在3500m左右,在1200m以下可能存在绿洲内边界层,绿洲内边界层高度有时会很低。     

Evolution of the atmospheric boundary-layer structure of an arid Andes Valley

Summary The boundary-layer structure of the Elqui Valley is investigated, which is situated in the arid north of Chile and extends from the Pacific Ocean in the west to the Andes in the east. The climate is dominated by the south-eastern Pacific subtropical anticyclone and the cold Humboldt Current. This combination leads to considerable temperature and moisture gradients between the coast and the valley and results in the evolution of sea and valley wind systems. The contribution of these mesoscale wind systems to the heat and moisture budget of the valley atmosphere is estimated, based on radiosoundings performed near the coast and in the valley. Near the coast, a well-mixed cloud-topped boundary layer exists. Both, the temperature and the specific humidity do not change considerably during the day. In the stratus layer the potential temperature increases, while the specific humidity decreases slightly with height. The top of the thin stratus layer, about 300 m in depth, is marked by an inversion. Moderate sea breeze winds of 3–4 m s⁻¹ prevail in the sub-cloud and cloud layer during daytime, but no land breeze develops during the night. The nocturnal valley atmosphere is characterized by a strong and 900 m deep stably stratified boundary layer. During the day, no pronounced well-mixed layer with a capping inversion develops in the valley. Above a super-adiabatic surface layer of about 150 m depth, a stably stratified layer prevails throughout the day. However, heating can be observed within a layer above the surface 800 m deep. Heat and moisture budget estimations show that sensible heat flux convergence exceeds cold air advection in the morning, while both processes compensate each other around noon, such that the temperature evolution stagnates. In the afternoon, cold air advection predominates and leads to net cooling of the boundary layer. Furthermore, the advection of moist air results in the accumulation of moisture during the noon and afternoon period, while latent heat flux convergence is of minor relevance to the moisture budget of the boundary layer. Correspondence: Norbert Kalthoff, Institut für Meteorologie und Klimaforschung, Universit?t Karlsruhe/Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Postfach 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany     

Thickness of the dry convection and large-scale subsidence above deserts

Thickness of dry convection above various deserts of the world is obtained from aerological data, and assimilated data from ECMWF. A mixed layer develops up to a height of about 1 km above the central Sahara, where strong subsidence occurs. However, above many other deserts in Africa and Asia, a deep mixed layer develops up to 4–6 km. These mixed layers develop to a high altitude because the daytime mixed layer links with an existing weakly stratified, near-neutral layer above. Large-scale subsidence does not reach the surface throughout the day, except in the winter season. Mixed-layer height is shallower in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere in the summer season.     

The wind speed shear in the case of stable stratification and the scales of the similarity theory

The wind speed shear in the case of stable stratification in the linear part of the profile spreading high above the surface layer of constant flows is studied using the data of long-term sodar measurements in the atmospheric boundary layer. The wind speed shear in this part remains almost invariable during several hours at the significant change in parameters of the Monin-Obukhov theory. The length of this linear part can be associated with the layer of the critical Richardson number. In the case of the pronounced temperature inversion (with the positive gradient of more than 1°C per 100 m), the wind speed profile is close to the linear function in the most part of the nocturnal mixing layer. Proposed is a scale characterizing the height of the surface layer of constant flows.     

Measurements and Modelling of the Wind Speed Profile in the Marine Atmospheric Boundary Layer

We present measurements from 2006 of the marine wind speed profile at a site located 18 km from the west coast of Denmark in the North Sea. Measurements from mast-mounted cup anemometers up to a height of 45 m are extended to 161 m using LiDAR observations. Atmospheric turbulent flux measurements performed in 2004 with a sonic anemometer are compared to a bulk Richardson number formulation of the atmospheric stability. This is used to classify the LiDAR/cup wind speed profiles into atmospheric stability classes. The observations are compared to a simplified model for the wind speed profile that accounts for the effect of the boundary-layer height. For unstable and neutral atmospheric conditions the boundary-layer height could be neglected, whereas for stable conditions it is comparable to the measuring heights and therefore essential to include. It is interesting to note that, although it is derived from a different physical approach, the simplified wind speed profile conforms to the traditional expressions of the surface layer when the effect of the boundary-layer height is neglected.     

étude expérimentale de la couche limite de montagne

The characteristics of the boundary layer over complex terrain (Lannemezan - lat.: 43.7° N and, long.: 0.7 ° E) are analyzed for various scales, using measurements obtained during the COCAGNE Experiment. In this first part, the dynamic characteristics of the flow are studied with respect to atmospheric stability and the relief at small (~20 km) and medium scales (~100 km). These relief scales depend on the topographical profile of the Lannemezan Plateau along the dominant axis of the wind (E-W) and the Pyrénées Mountains located at the south of the experimental site. The terrain heterogeneities have a standard deviation of ~48 m and a wavelength of ~2 km.The averaged vertical profiles of wind speed and direction over the heterogeneous terrain are analyzed. The decrease of wind speed within the boundary layer is greater than over flat terrain (WANGARA Experiment). However, a comparison between ETTEX (complex terrain) and COCAGNE vertical wind speed profiles shows good agreement during unstable conditions. In contrast, during neutral conditions a more rapid increase with normalized height is found with COCAGNE than with ETTEX and WANGARA data. The vertical profiles of wind direction reveal an influence of the Pyrénées Mountains on the wind flow. The wind rotation in the BL is determined by the geostrophic wind direction-Pyrénées axis angle (negative deviation) as the geostrophic wind is connected with the Mountain axis.When the geostrophic wind does not interact with the Pyrénées axis, the mean and turbulent wind flow characteristics (drag coefficient C _D, friction velocity u _*) depend on the topography of the plateau. When the wind speed is strong (>6 m s ^-1), an internal boundary layer is generated from the leading edge of the Plateau.     

ASCAT近岸风在山东沿海的适用性分析

利用2013年1月—2014年12月山东近海的8个浮标站、海岛站和自动站资料与ASCAT近岸风速和风向进行对比,以分析ASCAT反演风场在山东沿海的适用性。研究发现：总体上看,ASCAT近岸风速与代表站实况风速正相关,ASCAT近岸风速在山东沿海误差较小,风向有明显的偏离。ASCAT近岸风在渤海、渤海海峡和黄海北部的适用性优于黄海中部。风力不同时,ASCAT近岸风速与实况偏差有明显差别,表现为当实况出现6级及以上的大风,ASCAT近岸风速小于实况;当实况出现6级以下的风,ASCAT近岸风速大于实况。就ASCAT风速偏差而言,6级以下的风速偏差小于6级及以上风。ASCAT近岸风向与实况偏差也有明显差别,当实况出现6级及以上的大风,ASCAT近岸风向与实况的偏离变小;当实况出现6级以下的风,ASCAT近岸风向与实况的偏离变大。因此,ASCAT近岸风速在山东沿海有较好的适用性,6级以下风更优;ASCAT近岸风向也有一定的适用性,6级及以上风向可用性比6级以下强。     

名山站探空资料与风廓线雷达资料的对比分析

应用四川省名山站2015~2017年6月21日~7月31日每日四个时次的西南涡加密探空资料与风廓线雷达资料,对比分析了在对流层低层风探测上两种资料的差异。结果表明:名山站风廓线雷达资料有效探测高度约为4200m;风廓线雷达和探空测得的风场廓线形状总体接近,两者的风速偏差较小,仅在个别层次和时次偏差大,风速的偏差大小与风廓线风速大小存在正相关关系,除少数情况外风廓线雷达测得的风速均大于探空;两者风向差值随高度的变化规律与风速相反,在中高层较小,低层较大;除01:15时次的500m高度外,其余时次自低层到高层两者观测到的主风向均由偏东北风变为偏西南风,一致性较好;U风和V风散点分布主要沿对角线呈棒槌型,V风质量优于U风,19:15这一时次的风廓线雷达探测U风相对探空资料存在明显系统性正偏差;风廓线雷达探测高度受降水影响较大,在07:15和13:15时次有降水时其探测高度明显高于无降水时。      

登陆台风边界层风廓线特征的地基雷达观测

为了分析登陆台风边界层风廓线特征,利用2004—2013年中国东南沿海新一代多普勒天气雷达收集的17个登陆台风资料,采用飓风速度体积分析方法,反演登陆台风的边界层风场结构特征。与探空观测对比表明,利用雷达径向风场可以准确地反演登陆台风的边界层风场结构,其风速误差小于2 m/s,风向误差小于5°。所有登陆台风合成的边界层风廓线显示,在近地层(100 m)以上,边界层风廓线存在类似急流的最大切向风,其高度均在1 km以上,显著高于大西洋观测到的飓风边界层急流高度(低于1 km)。陆地边界层内低层入流强度也明显大于过去海上观测,这主要是由陆地上摩擦增大引起。越靠近台风中心,边界层风廓线离散度越大,其中,径向风廓线比全风速以及切向风廓线离散度更大。将风廓线相对台风移动方向分为4个象限,分析边界层风廓线非对称特征显示,台风移动前侧入流层明显高于移动后侧。最大切向风位于台风移动左后侧,而台风右后侧没有显著的急流特征,与过去理想模拟的海陆差异导致的台风非对称分布特征一致。     

Determination of surface layer parameters at the edge of a suburban area

Vertical wind and air temperature profile related parameters in the surface layer at the edge of suburban area of Zagreb (Croatia) have been considered. For that purpose, adopted Monin–Obukhov similarity theory and a set of observations of wind and air temperature at 2 and 10?m above ground, recorded in 2005, have been used. The root mean square differences (errors) principle has been used as a tool to estimate the effective roughness length as well as standard deviations of wind speed and wind gusts. The results of estimation are effective roughness lengths dependent on eight wind direction sectors unknown before. Gratefully to that achievement, representativeness of wind data at standard 10-m height can be clarified more deeply for an area of at least about 1?km in upwind direction from the observation site. Extrapolation of wind data for lower or higher levels from standard 10-m height are thus properly representative for a wider inhomogeneous suburban area and can be used as such in numerical models, flux and wind energy estimation, civil engineering, air pollution and climatological applications.