4D analogue modelling of transtensional pull-apart basins

Scaled sandbox models were used to investigate the 4D evolution of pull-apart basins formed above underlapping releasing stepovers in both pure strike-slip and transtensional basement fault systems. Serial sectioning and 3D volume reconstruction permitted analysis of the full 3D fault geometries. Results show that very different pull-apart basins are developed in transtension compared to pure strike-slip. Both types of models produced elongate, sigmoidal to rhomboidal pull-apart systems, but the transtensional pull-apart basins were significantly wider and uniquely developed a basin margin of en-echelon oblique-extensional faults. Dual, opposing depocentres formed in the transtensional model whereas a single, central depocentre formed in pure strike-slip. In transtension, a distinct narrow graben system formed above the principal displacement zones (PDZs). Cross-basin fault systems that linked the offset PDZs formed earlier in the transtensional models.Sequential model runs to higher PDZ displacements allowed the progressive evolution of the fault systems to be evaluated. In cross-section, transtensional pull-aparts initiated as asymmetric grabens bounded by planar oblique-extensional faults. With increasing displacement on the PDZs, basin subsidence caused these faults to become concave-upwards and lower in dip angle due to fault block collapse towards the interior of the basin. In addition, strain partitioning caused fault slip to become either predominantly extensional or strike-slip. The models compare closely with the geometries of natural pull-apart basins including the southern Dead Sea fault system and the Vienna Basin, Austria.     

Deep tow studies of the Tamayo transform fault

The Tamayo transform fault occurs at the north end of the East Pacific Rise where it enters the Gulf of California. The two deep-tow surveys reported here show that the transform fault zone changes significantly as a function of distance from the spreading center intersections. At site 1, near the intersection, one side of the fault is young and the fault zone is narrow and well-defined. Strike slip occurs in a zone approximately 1-km wide suggesting a correspondingly narrow zone of decoupling between the Pacific and North American plates. On the young side of the strike-slip zone, normal faults occur along shear zones which are 45°–50° oblique to the transform strike. They occur parallel to the short axis of the strain ellipse for transform fault strain here, i.e., perpendicular to the least compressive stress. The transform walls are formed by normal faulting as has been pointed out in previous detailed surveys. Here, however, the age contrast of 2.5 m.y. across the transform valley is apparent in the morphology of the normal fault scarps. While the scarps are steep and well-defined on the young side, the scarps on the older side have gradual 10°–30° slopes and appear to be primarily talus ramps. Apparently, the scarps have been tectonically eroded by continued strike slip activity after the initial stages of normal faulting. Thus, transform valleys should be quite asymmetric in cross-section where there is a significant age contrast and one side is less than approximately 0.5 m.y. old. Also, along older sections of the transform valley walls, normal faulting may not be at all obvious due to degradation of the scarps by tectonic erosion. This phenomenon makes the likelihood of transform faults providing windows into the oceanic crust most unlikely except in special cases.The picture of transform deformation is more complex at site 2 in the central portion of the fault where both sides of the fault are greater than 1 m.y. old. Here the transform valley is wider (25–30 km as opposed to 2–5 km). There is no clear simple zone of strike slip tectonics. In fact, the only clear evidence for deformation is the intrusion of magmatic or serpentinite diapirs through the sediments of the transform valley floor. The diapirs have deformed the turbidite layers flooring the valley and in one carefully studied case the turbidite sequence has been uplifted, perched atop the diapir. The pattern of deformation on this outcropping diapir shows radial and concentric fractures which can be modeled by a vertical intrusion circular in plan view. Magnetic studies limit the possible composition to basalt or serpentinite. A 60-km-long median ridge is also likely to be the product of intrusion along the transform fault. The survey at site 2 pointed out the importance of vertical tectonics in the transform valley floor and in particular the importance of diapiric intrusions of either basaltic or serpentinite composition.Based on initial boundary conditions and present tectonic elements in the Tamayo fault zone, a possible history of the mouth of the Gulf of California is outlined. The median ridge was emplaced starting approximately 0.8 m.y. ago by regional extension across the transform fault, the result of leaky transform faulting. The diapirs occur along a possible relay zone of extension midway along the fault which began approximately 0.15 m.y. ago. The extension in this case is parallel to the trend of the transform fault, is still occurring at present, and may evolve into a true spreading center.Contribution of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, new series.     

Structural development and tectonic evolution of Gunsan Basin (Cretaceous–Tertiary) in the central Yellow Sea

This study analyzes the structural development of the Gunsan Basin in the central Yellow Sea, based on multi-channel seismic reflection profiles and exploratory well data. The basin comprises three depressions (the western, central, and eastern subbasins) filled with a thick (ca. 6000 m) Cretaceous to Paleogene nonmarine succession. It was initiated in the early Cretaceous due to intracontinental extension caused by oblique subduction of the Izanagi plate under the Eurasian plate and sinistral movement of the Tan-Lu fault. The basin appears to have undergone transtension in the late Cretaceous–Eocene, caused by dextral movement of the Tan-Lu and its branching faults. The transtension was accommodated by oblique intra-basinal normal faults and strike-slip (or oblique-slip) movement of a NE-trending bounding fault in the northern margin of the central subbasin. The entire basin was deformed (NE–SW contraction) in the Oligocene when tectonic inversion occurred, possibly due to the changes in strike-slip motion, from right- to left-lateral, of the Tan-Lu fault. During the early Miocene, extension resumed by reactivation of the pre-existing normal and transpressional faults. A combination of extension, uplift, and erosion resulted in differential preservation of the early Miocene succession. At the end of the early Miocene, extension ceased with mild contraction and then the basin thermally subsided with ensued rise in sea level.     

Mantle melting beneath the Southwest Indian Ridge: signals from clinopyroxene in abyssal peridotites

The mineral chemistry and texture of clinopyroxenes in peridotite from the Kingkong tectonic zone of the Southwest Indian Ridge segment in an effort to constrain mantle melting beneath this slow-spreading ridge are reported. There are three types of clinopyroxenes in the abyssal peridotites： coarse-grained, intergranu- lar and exsolved. The compositional variations among these three types suggest that the coarse-grained clinopyroxene is a mantle-derived source. The A1, Na and Ti contents and the Na/Ti ratio of the coarse- grained clinopyroxene may be used to monitor the degree of partial melting, combined with the contradis- tinction with Spinel Cr#, which is calculated to be between 7.9% and 14.9%, and may represent low degrees of melting in the global ocean ridge system. The along-axis compositional variations in the coarse-grained clinopyroxene suggest that the degree of partial melting is primarily controlled by the transform faults on both sides of the ridge. Nonetheless, the northwestern side of the ridge may be affected by a hypothesised detachment fault as documented by the calculated P-T conditions. Simultaneously high Na and low Ti con- tents in the coarse-grained clinoovroxene points to mantle heterogeneities along the ridge axis.     

横穿黑潮锋断面的流场结构

基于一组简化了的运动方程组，在充分考虑底Ekman层作用的情况下，提出一种横穿锋面的断面上流场结构的计算方法。应用该方法对东海横穿黑潮锋的不同断面上的流场（1989－1990年资料）进行计算。结果表明，黑潮锋左侧（向岸侧）存在较强的上升流，而锋区右侧（离岸侧）表现为海水的下降运动。垂直流速为（1－20）×10－3cm／s的量级，而横穿锋面方向的水平流速为1－3cm／s，其中以夏、秋季跃层附近最强。在陆架坡折处，上升流转向陆架。同时，还分析了正压场和斜压场对这种流场的不同贡献，认为在黑潮区，正压场起主要作用;而在内陆架区，斜压场则变得重要。将计算的流场与硝酸盐的分布比较表明，两者有较好的对应关系。     

Peculiarities of the tectonic and magma evolution of the southwestern Indian middle-ocean crust within the range of 51°–67° eastern longitude

The comparative estimation of the parameters of the lithosphere of the Mid-Ocean Southwestern Indian range in the areas westwards and eastwards of the Atlantis II transform fault zone shows that, within this zone, an alteration in the basalt composition occurred. Eastwards of this zone, a decrease of the anomaly of the magnetic field occurred and increased average depths of the axial part (4.7 km) and thinning (up to 4–5 km) of the ocean crust with increased rates of seismic waves in the upper mantle were observed. This, first of all, indicates an anomalously cold mantle below the oceanic crust. The changes that occurred in the location of the Euler pole within the last millions of years resulted in slanting spreading in the area of the investigation with rates of opening lower than 1.8 cm/year probably accompanied by the phenomena of transtension in the active parts of the transform faults. The interaction between the Landly and Somali lithosphere plates occurred along the diffusion boundary and was accompanied by problems with tracing the chrones between the neighboring profiles of geomagnetic observations. Consequently, the more detailed investigation of the configuration of the diffusion boundary will contribute to the more accurate reconstruction of the paleogeodynamics of the central part of the Indian Ocean.     

Control of pelagic sediment distribution by internal waves of tidal period: Possible interpretation of data from the southern East Pacific Rise

Sediment depositional patterns were observed on acoustic-reflection profiles at 36 and 42°S across the East Pacific Rise, near 100°W longitude. The sediment thickness as a function of distance from the crest shows a remarkable linearity on the east side of the rise, where the bottom topography is unusually subdued. The rate of sedimentation is 3.8 m/m.y at 42°S and 7.2 m/m.y. at 36°S. Disturbance to the even sedimentation appears to be correlated with topographic features more than 300 m high, and may therefore be associated with the interference between the barotropic tides and the topography. The group velocity of internal waves of semi-daily period is 15 cm sec⁻¹ in this area for a vertical wave number of 300 m⁻¹, and the characteristic slopes at 9° to the horizontal. The waves travel faster than the flow velocity of the tides and at an angle less than the slopes associated with the larger topographic features. Therefore a typical tidal velocity of 3 cm sec⁻¹ can be magnified substantially before the particle velocity approaches the group velocity and breaking occurs. Less magnification is possible near smaller topography because the group velocity is proportional to wavelength for internal waves of constant period. The tidal flow is magnified most near the boundary where the internal waves are reflected, and the higher velocities should cause settling sediment particles to remain in suspension locally. Thick boundary layers caused by breaking and mixing can shield the smaller-scale topography from the tidal motion.     

Transition between the Okinawa trough backarc extension and the Taiwan collision: New insights on the southernmost Ryukyu subduction zone

Located between the Okinawa trough (OT) backarc basin and the collisional zone in Taiwan, the southernmost Ryukyu subduction zone is investigated. This area, including the southwestern portions of the OT and Ryukyu island arc (RA) and located west of 123.5° E, is named the Taiwan-Ryukyu fault zone (TRFZ). West of 123.5° E, the OT displays NNW-SSE structural trends which are different in direction from the ENE-WSW trending pattern of the rest of the OT. Using joint analysis of bathymetric, magnetic, gravity and earthquake data, three major discontinuities, that we interpret as right-lateral strike-slip faults (Faults A, B and C), have been identified. These faults could represent major decouplings in the southern portion of the Ryukyu subduction zone: each decoupling results in a decrease of the horizontal stress on the portion of the RA located on the eastern side of the corresponding fault, which allows the extension of the eastern side of OT to proceed more freely.We demonstrate that the 30° clockwise bending of the southwestern RA and the consecutive faulting in the TRFZ are mainly due to the collision of the Luzon arc with the former RA. After the formation of Fault C, the counterclockwise rotated portion of the ancient RA located west of the Luzon arc was more parallel to the Luzon arc. This configuration should have increased the contact surface and friction between the Luzon arc and the ancient RA, which could have reduced the northward subduction of the Luzon are. Thus, the westward component of the compressive stress from the collision of the Luzon arc should become predominant in the collisional system resulting in the uplift of Taiwan. Presently, because the most active collision of the Luzon arc has migrated to the central Taiwan (at about 23° N; 121.2° E), the southwestern OT has resumed its extension. In addition, the later resistent subduction of the Gagua ridge could have reactivated the pre-existing faults A and B at 1 M.y. ago and present, respectively. From 9 to 4 M.y., a large portion of the Gagua ridge probably collided with the southwestern RA. Because of its large buoyancy, this portion of the ridge resisted to subduct beneath the Okinawa platelet. As a result, we suggest that a large exotic terrane, named the Gagua terrane, was emplaced on the inner side of the present Ryukyu trench. Since that period, the southwestern portion of the Ryukyu trench was segmented into two parallel branches separated by the Gagua ridge: the eastern segment propagated westward along the trench axis while the western segment of the trench retreated along the trench axis.     

Primary productivity in a cold water mass and the neighborhood area occurring off Enshu-nada in the late summer of 1989

Primary productivity off Enshu-nada was measured by the¹³C method in September 1989. Primary productivity was estimated in a cold water mass developed off Enshu-nada for the first time. The obtained value was 469 mgC·m^–2·d^–1 and higher than those in the pelagic area of Kuroshio, but equivalent to those in the neritic and the Oyashio areas. It was indicated that cold water mass is the place where organic matter is produced actively. Extremely high chlorophylla of more than 5g·l^–1 were found in the cold water mass. The high productivity was due to high standing crop of phyoplankton. Furthermore, calculated light efficiency and quantum yield showed consistent increase with depth and showed a maximum at 10% light level. Both were larger on the coastal side than those on the oceanic side of the Kuroshio current.     

Determination of age of kahawai Arripis trutta (Bloch & Schneider)

Scales are unsuitable for age determination in Arripis trutta older than 5 y (approximately equivalent to 40 cm L.C.F.). Otoliths can be used for fish of all ages. The maximum age recorded is 22 y.     

长江口泥质区18#柱样的现代沉积速率及其环境 指示意义

通过对长江口泥质区18#柱样进行137Cs和210Pb同位素测年分析,得到了柱样站点的现代沉积速率。结果表明,近50多年来沉积速率较大,且呈现阶段性差异：由137Cs时标计年法得到柱样1954—1964年的沉积速率为5.9 cm/yr,1964—2006年减小为 3.36 cm/yr;沉积柱样的210Pb剖面呈两段分布,由此得到沉积速率120～225 cm为5.47 cm/yr,对应于18～100 cm减小为4.58 cm/yr。对比分析两种方法得出沉积速率开始减小的时间为1968—1972年,并且采样点区域表层可能出现侵蚀现象,为研究长江口泥质区环境演变提供了依据。     

The sedimentation rates in the Okinawa Trough during the Late Quaternary

On the basis of accelerator mass spectrometer radiocarbon （AMS ^14C） dating, sedimentation rates of 11 cores collected from the northern to southern Okinawa Trough are discussed. The sedimentation rates in the Okinawa Trough roughly range from 11 to 39cm/ka, and the average is 23.0cm/ka. China＇s continental matter is the main sediment source of the middle Okinawa Trough and has important contribution to the northern and southern Okinawa Trough. The sedimentation rates during the marine oxygen isotope （MIS） 2 are uniformly higher than those during MIS 1 in the northern and middle Okinawa Trough while they are on the contrary in the southern Okinawa Trough. Sedimentation rates in the Okinawa Trough can be one of the proxies of sediment source and an indicator of cooling events.     

利用H/V方法研究琼北火山区的浅表层地质变化特征

海南琼北活火山作为华南沿海重要的第四纪火山, 一直受到国内外学者的广泛关注, 目前对该火山的形成演化已开展了大量深部地质结构的研究, 但对其表层地质结构特征仍然缺乏详细了解。水平-垂直频谱比法(简称H/V方法)已被广泛应用于浅表层地质结构的研究, 本文基于35个便携式微功耗地震仪组成的流动台阵观测数据, 采用经典全波场H/V_(full)和瑞利波椭圆率H/V_(Ray)分析方法, 获得了琼北火山区H/V曲线峰值频率(F₀)和放大倍数(A₀)的空间变化特征。琼北火山区H/V曲线峰值频率变化强烈, 以长流-仙沟断裂为界, 断裂西南侧很难从H/V曲线中获取清晰的F₀和A₀, 而断裂东北侧则存在明显的F₀和A₀。结合已有地质资料, 本文认为长流-仙沟断裂西南侧处于凹陷区, 其浅表层火山岩未发生明显的风化作用, 而东北侧位于隆起区域, 地表火山岩受到了比较严重的风化作用。这一研究结果表明, H/V方法可反映表层火山岩的风化状态, 火山岩出露场地H/V曲线的峰值频率和放大倍数随风化作用程度的增强而表现得更加明显。本研究为琼北火山区浅表火山岩风化状态和地震危险性评估提供了重要的信息支撑。     

渤海中部铅直扩散系数的探讨

根据Ｋｕｌｌｅｎｂｅｒｇ的半理论半经验公式，利用渤海中部８号平台的观测资料，选择强风期的２月和弱风期的７月分别代表冬季和夏季，推算了渤海中部海域冬、夏两季的铅直扩散系数。计算结果表明：Ｋｚ值在强风期的２月最大可达５．５ｃｍ２／ｓ；在弱风期的７月跃层中可达０．０２～０．０４ｃｍ２／ｓ。     

基于NCEP数据进行高度计湿对流层校正的探讨

为达到高度计几厘米测高精度,湿对流层校正范围为3~45 cm,精确计算湿对流层校正是至关重要的。本文利用美国国家环境预报中心(National Centers for Environmental Prediction,NCEP)数据,采用模型法计算高度计湿对流层校正。计算结果与无线电探空仪计算结果比较,偏差为0.01 cm,均方根为2 cm;与Jason-1模型法湿对流层校正产品比较,偏差为0.2 cm,均方根为1.4 cm。因此,利用NCEP数据计算高度计湿对流层校正精度较高,能够满足高度计大气湿对流层校正精度要求。为高度计大气湿对流层校正的计算提供1种新方法。     

Extension of active fault zones on Nisyros volcano across the Yali-Nisyros Channel based on onshore and offshore data

Nisyros island is a volcano at the eastern edge of the Aegean volcanic arc within the Hellenic arc and trench system along the convergence zone of the Eurasian and African plates. Several fault zones have been mapped and analyzed on the island with fault displacements reaching 100?C150 m as deduced from the morphology and the offset of the stratigraphic formations of the volcano. Seismic activity during 1995?C1998 affected the island with damage along the western edge of the Mandraki town, related to the Mandraki fault. The geological, tectonic and morphological data on land show that the Mandraki fault throw is 80?C100 m and its length about 2 km. Its continuation northwards under the sea was studied within a systematic survey of the broader area of the Kos-Nisyros-Tilos islands; and the bathymetric and lithoseismic data showed the existence of some active tectonic structures. In the area of the Yali-Nisyros Channel the prolongation of the Mandraki fault has a 100 m high submarine scarp between the two sides of the fault. Morphological slopes along the fault are high between 20 and 50% in contrast to slopes of 1?C5% observed on top of the two adjacent tectonic blocks. The general structure both on land and offshore shows a westward tilt contemporaneous to the extension in the E-W direction observed in this area. Observations of the submarine fault during a dive with submersible Thetis showed spectacular landslides and loose rocks along the fault scarp and very abrupt linear topographic change along the strike of the fault. The synthesis of the onshore and offshore data on a digital topographic map shows that the Mandraki fault is a secondary structure of the major F3 fault zone of Nisyros which separates the neotectonic block/horst of Prophitis Ilias in the west from the Emborio/Nikia block in the east. The GPS data from the period 1997?C2001 show excellent agreement with the neotectonic block structure of Nisyros. The seismic hazard of the F3/Mandraki fault zone is discussed together with the volcanic hazard of Yali-Nisyros area with the general conclusion that the expected seismic magnitude of 6.1?C6.3 is significantly higher than that observed in 1995?C1998. The ascent of magma from a chamber 7.5?C8.5 km deep between the Yali and Nisyros islands may trigger tectonovolcanic activity similar to that observed at the end of the 19th century.     

Age and growth of the pufferfish Uranostoma richei (Plectognathi: Lagocephalidae) from Lyttelton Harbour

Abstract

The age of pufferfish Uranostoma richei (Freminville) in Lyttelton Harbour, South Island, New Zealand is described from analyses of length‐frequency distributions and growth zones in otoliths. Length‐frequency analysis is adequate only for aging smaller fish. The validity of using growth zones in otoliths is checked by examining the pattern and time of zone formation. Length‐weight relationships are established and growth rates calculated. Compared with males, females grow faster (2.4cm·y^?1; 2.1 for males), attain a larger size (to 18 cm and 120 g; 12 cm and 40 g for males) and live longer (to 7 y; 5 for males).     

扭断裂及基底掀斜控制上覆地层的褶皱——东海Y构造的一种解释模式

位于东海XH凹陷的Y构造,以其两侧发育的NE—NNE向高角度逆冲断层和构造顶部发育的NW、近EW向的正断层、平面展布的“S”型构成其独特的构造风格。本文致力于应用T.P.Harding的扭动构造理论,结合该构造的成因机制进行了分析,并得出结论:Y构造为中新世末期的龙井运动压扭作用的产物。     

计算分析潮流对海缆路由稳定性的影响

通过野外勘察和室内试验分析结果,了解琼州海峡北海—临高段海缆路由区浅层海底土分布特征和路由区及其附近海区的潮流特征,利用计算的方法分析了10 a和50 a一遇的潮流对海缆路由区冲刷破坏的可能性。结果发现,在琼州海峡海缆路由区海底砂性土平均起动流速(23.2~58.9 cm/s)小于10 a一遇(75.2~93.8 cm/s)和50 a一遇(85.4~113.7 cm/s)的预测流速;海底粘性土的平均起动流速(64.8 cm/s)也小于10 a一遇(76.2 cm/s)和50 a一遇(87.4 cm/s)的预测流速。路由区海底土会因潮流冲刷作用而发生失稳破坏,影响埋设在海底土中海缆的安全。同时,结果还发现潮流对砂性海底土的影响大于对粘性海底土的影响。     

Absolute Calibration of the Jason-1 Altimeter Using UK Tide Gauges

This article describes an “absolute” calibration of Jason-1 (J-1) altimeter sea surface height bias using a method developed for TOPEX/Poseidon (T/P) bias determination reported previously. The method makes use of U.K. tide gauges equipped with Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers to measure sea surface heights at the same time, and in the same geocentric reference frame, as Jason-1 altimetric heights recorded in the nearby ocean. The main time-dependent components of the observed altimeter-minus-gauge height-difference time series are due to the slightly different ocean tides at the gauge and in the ocean. The main harmonic coefficients of the tide differences are calculated from analysis of the copious TOPEX data set and then applied to the determination of T, P, and J-1 bias in turn. Datum connections between the tide gauge and altimetric sea surface heights are made by means of precise, local geoid differences from the EGG97 model. By these means, we have estimated Jason-1 altimeter bias determined from Geophysical Data Record (GDR) data for cycles 1–61 to be 12.9 cm, with an accuracy estimated to be approximately 3 cm on the basis of our earlier work. This J-1 bias value is in close agreement with those determined by other groups, which provides a further confirmation of the validity of our method and of its potential for application in other parts of the world where suitable tide gauge, GPS, and geoid information exist.