Commodity conservation: The restructuring of community conservation in South Africa and the Philippines

The world over, neoliberal modes of conservation are hybridising with, or even replacing, other forms of conservation. Under the banner of ‘win–win’ policies, planners actively work to commoditize natural resources and the social relations that determine the use and conservation of these resources. While these general processes seem to hold sway globally, it is crucial not to lose sight of the context specific ways in which neo-liberalism influences conservation practice and local outcomes. The paper examines how neo-liberalism’s global pervasiveness becomes manifest across different levels and scales in South Africa and the Philippines. The conclusion suggests that as a result of these neoliberal pressures, emphasis is shifting from local constructions of ‘nature’ by communities to what the environment should mean for communities in terms of commodified resources and growing capitalist markets.     

Customary tenure systems under siege: contemporary access to land in Northern Ghana

Land in most of Africa is controlled under the customary tenure system which is governed by well intentioned social and cultural rules meant to grant equal access to families within groups with common interest in land. Rapid changes in the domestic situation of countries resulting from both refractions of policies and influences from the global economy and emerging complexities within the local socio-economic context has altered the traditional land tenure systems in most parts of Africa. In the rural setting and for agricultural purposes, the customary tenure system seems to be crumbling slowly, while in the urban centres and for housing, industrial and commercial purposes the system has collapsed in favour of a commoditised one. The emerging patterns of access in Northern Ghana show growing inequalities in access, control and ownership. There is the need for a new architecture of land rights negotiated by a participatory process and regulated by both state and traditional institutions.     

Enabling 3D geomechanical restoration of strike- and oblique-slip faults using geological constraints,with applications to the deep-water Niger Delta

We present a new approach of using local constraints on fault slip to perform three-dimensional geomechanical restorations. Geomechanical restoration has been performed previously on extensional and contractional systems, yet attempts to restore strike- and oblique-slip fault systems have generally failed to recover viable fault-slip patterns. The use of local measures of slip as constraints in the restoration overcomes this difficulty and enables restorations of complex strike- and oblique slip-systems. To explore this approach, we develop a synthetic restraining bend system to evaluate different ways that local slip constraints can be applied. Our restorations show that classical boundary conditions fail to reproduce the fault offset and strain pattern. In contrast, adding piercing points and/or properly constraining lateral walls enables restoration of the structure and resolves the correct pattern of slip along the faults. We then restore a complex system of tear-faults in the deepwater Niger Delta basin. We use channel offsets imaged by the seismic data to define local fault-slip constraints. Balancing these constraints equally on both sides of the major faults yields the most consistent restoration outcomes. This approach resolves reasonable slip styles on the complex set of thrust, normal, and strike-slip faults in the structure. This suggests that limited geologic fault slip constraints can be effectively incorporated in geomechanical restorations, yielding accurate restoration kinematics and thereby forecasting faults slip patterns within the structures.     

Interplay of State and Local Concern in the Management of Natural Resources: Hydraulics and Forestry in Spain (1855–1936)

The modern tradition in the management of nature in Spain was shaped by different policies for economic and social restoration included in a vast plural reformist movement known as Regeneracionismo. The aim of the restoration of wealth was felt to require the correction of the defects of the geographical configuration of the country, and particularly the imbalances in its climatic and hydraulic régimes which derive from its orography. The objective put forward was then to put in place a national hydraulic artery system in order to increase irrigated areas and to redistribute water. Hydraulic policy was to find additional and essential support in hydrological-forestry action.Both hydraulic and forestry policies during the period 1855–1936 are studied in this essay. They are first reviewed in the context of conservation of nonrenewable natural resources. They are then considered as an expression of the conflicts between the State administration and local powers and interests. This tension prevented the rational use of the natural resources available — an antagonism which has by no means disappeared.This essay is based on our contribution to the XVIIth International Congress of History of Science, Hamburg, August 1989.     

关于天津市地热资源管理的思考

由于受评价方法和开采方式的影响,现行地热资源管理制度沿用的是地下水资源管理模式,在地热资源评价方法、指标核定、收费标准和优惠政策方面存在不足,地热回灌工作也将会遇到现行制度难以解决的问题。以能源矿产属性管理地热是解决现有问题的有效途径,可通过改变地热年度开采指标核定方法、修订地热矿产资源补偿费征收标准、建立地热矿山地质环境恢复保证金制度等来实现。     

GMOs and their contexts: A comparison of potential and actual performance of GM crops in a local agricultural setting

In this paper, I argue that genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have inherent potential to contribute to socially and environmentally sustainable agriculture by virtue of their ‘biological embeddedness’. Their actual ‘performance’ and how this contributes to sustainability depends on the ‘mutual shaping’ of technology and context. While much attention has been given to the design context of GMOs, this paper considers the influence of the application context and of users. A case study investigating the use of insect-resistant and herbicide-tolerant GM cotton in the cotton-growing region of New South Wales in Australia is presented. The study was based on focus groups with farmers and other stakeholders in a cotton-growing community. It demonstrated a range of direct and indirect effects of GM cotton use, both positive and negative for sustainability, and the ways in which these effects were influenced by the local social context. The influences of the biotechnology industry context, in limiting the contributions that gene technologies can make to sustainability, were also considered, and remedies suggested. I argue that the polarity of the GM debate is hindering progress on these issues, and that a more balanced approach to our analysis of GMOs is necessary in order to fully understand, and to influence, their role in the future of rural spaces.     

Linking reforestation policies with land use change in northern Vietnam: Why local factors matter

In many countries worldwide, similar state policies on land management have been implemented as a response to deforestation in mountainous areas. So far, few studies have examined to which extent these policies have actually contributed to reforestation. This is the focus of our analysis, based on a case study in Vietnam. Because land access and land use were traditionally governed by common rules, we examine land use changes from an institutional perspective. We use the Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework, coupled with an historical perspective and the analysis of actors’ perception and dominant narratives on land management and forests. Results show that national policies significantly interfered with local factors, leading to a complex course of decision-making and action. Substantial reforestation in the area was not a response by farmers to policy incentives but rather the unexpected outcome of the disruption of local institutions by these policies. We argue that, because national interventions have relied on false or exaggerated narratives and beliefs, their implementation is in conflict with the local reality in upland areas, leading to unpredictable and locally dependent outcomes. We defend hence the need for local level studies and also recommend considering local institutions for land use change analysis in contexts where land use systems are characterised by a high degree of human interaction.     

The spatial context of manpower policy: Implications of current Canadian policy on regional development and planning

Macro government policies are often considered outside the context of their spatial impact. Following recent discussions of the problem, this paper is concerned with a critical review of Canadian Manpower policy in the context of national efficiency, regional equity and their interaction. Thus Manpower policy is analysed with respect to its implications concerning regional development as well as implicit regional policy. It is contended that many of the problems of Manpower policy in the spatial context can be traced back to the implicit theoretical background of Manpower policy; Human Capital theory. A radical critique of Human Capital theory is presented and a brief discussion of the ‘functional’ relationship between regional inequality and national macro-planning is also noted. In general the paper concludes that Manpower and regional policies in Canada tend to be contradictory although more research is needed to analyse the spatial impact of macro-policy which may overwhelm spatial policy and significantly influence the future of the spatial economy.     

‘Bringing government to the people’: women, local governance and community participation in South Africa

This paper considers the ongoing political transformations in South Africa in the context of debates about good governance and participatory democracy. It first appraises the current transformations of local government in South Africa, focusing specifically on relationships between gender equality and citizenship on the one hand, and local government policy, legislation, and community participation on the other, and then explores meanings of participation and how they inform approaches towards local socio-economic development. The findings of primary research conducted with civil society organisations and black women in communities in the Cape Town metropolitan area are explored through three interrelated themes. First, the model of structured participation that is central to South Africa’s democratic transformation is assessed from the perspective of black women. Second, cultures of alienation, both within local governance structures and amongst black women and the extent to which recent restructuring is combating or contributing to these are explored. Third, how participation policies are dealing with conflict within and between target groups are analysed, whether stakeholder group politics obliterate important differences in interests and whether alternative structures might be more effective in terms of women’s participation and empowerment. Finally, the findings are interpreted in relation to theoretical concepts of good governance and participatory democracy, and the potential and problems of realising South Africa’s transformation process toward developmental local government are assessed.     

The role in lateritic nickel mining in Latin American countries with special reference to exmibal in Guatemala

Modern mining operations can result in significant economic development within the developing host countries. Lateritic nickel mining plays a role of varying importance in a number of Latin American countries, depending on natural resource endowments and government policies. Exploraciones y Explotaciones Mineras Izabal, SA (Exmibal) is a large-scale lateritic nickel mining operation that serves as an excellent case study in the analysis of mining-induced economic development at local, regional and national scales. Exmibal's turbulent history demonstrates the need to view mining dynamically and in the context of production and consumption restraints. Guatemala's experience will Exmibal may be generalized most successfully to other Latin American countries that have or may have one large nickel mining complex operated by a transnational enterprise.     

岩体裂隙网络非线性渗流特性研究

基于人工交叉裂隙模型,通过室内透水试验,利用电荷耦合元件（CCD）照相机可视化技术,对流体在裂隙交叉点内的非线性流动特性进行研究。建立两种离散裂隙网络（DFN）模型,考虑两种边界条件,改变模型进口和出口之间的压力,直接求解Navier-Stokes（简称N-S）方程,对DFN的非线性渗流特性进行研究。结果表明,室内试验可以观测到与出口3相连的裂隙单元内发生了明显的非线性流动,且通过模型的流量Q和模型两端的压力P具有非线性关系。数值计算结果也表明,在水力梯度J较大时（比如J > 0.1）,通过DFN的Q和P具有非线性关系,而当J较小时（比如J < 10-4）,Q与P线性相关;根据文中的算例,建议利用局部立方定律求解DFN内每条裂隙的渗流特性的临界条件为J ≤10-4;裂隙表面粗糙会造成通过DFN渗流量的降低,但对相对流量误差的影响可忽略不计。     

岩溶断陷盆地“盆-山”耦合地形影响下的气候特征及其对石漠化生态恢复的影响探讨

掌握石漠化山区受海拔影响的气候特征的垂直差异,能够对岩溶山地气候及其影响下的水热组合条件有更为科学的认识,对石漠化演变研究和综合治理有重要意义。本文通过在典型石漠化山区（云南蒙自断陷盆地区）沿盆地、坡地到山区设立三个小型气象观测站获取山地垂直剖面的气象数据,从月（季）、日尺度分析石漠化山区“盆-山”耦合地形的气候垂直特征及其对石漠化生态恢复的可能影响,结果表明:（1）观测剖面是当地主导风东南风的背风坡,年降雨量高原面（1 027.4 mm）>盆地（662.6 mm）>坡面（574.4 mm）;且 “山谷风”效应显著,白天吹谷风,降雨比例更大。地形起伏使盆地降雨年变异系数达152.36%,远大于坡面（113.81%）与高原面（99.36%）,地形放大了垂直方向的“干湿”差异,区域干燥指数:盆地（1.74）>坡面（1.70）>高原面（0.88）。（2）垂直方向水汽差异使高原面年太阳辐射量（5 492 MJ·m-2）略小于盆地（5 817 MJ·m-2）。同时盆地与高原面气温垂直梯度达0.74 ℃·100 m-1,因此在光热条上存在明显的垂直差异。（3）垂直气候特征对石漠化生态恢复的影响具体表现在:①年内降雨集中,结合坡度较陡的地形易加速水土流失;②降雨量少,且集中在日间,强烈的蒸发易加剧土壤水分亏缺,不利于植被恢复。③研究区水分缺乏,因此在植被恢复治理中应选择耐旱的作物,同时要考虑垂直方向的光热条件差异,盆地选择喜光热作物,海拔高的地区选择喜温凉的作物。      

The new equine sector and its influence on multifunctional land use in peri-urban areas

The equine sector is increasingly influencing land use, especially in peri-urban areas where the demand for land is already high. The sector not only influences traditional farming and land use, but also social, legal and economic development, and thus demands new interpretations of rural and urban. However, there is currently a lack of information on the consequences of this sector at landscape, social and economic level. This study examines the influence of the equine sector on the development of multifunctional land use in peri-urban areas, using data and examples from Sweden. It also examines specific features of the associated growing area of research and the positioning of the issue within the broader context of land use and planning. The methods used were a case study of a municipality, together with interviews and analyses of statistical material at regional level in the context of multifunctional land use, planning and sustainable development. It was found that the structure of the equine sector varies at both national and local level due to local conditions, but that there are also common features that need to be further studied using a broad interdisciplinary starting point.     

基于植被区划和生态敏感性的中国煤矿生态恢复策略

煤炭是我国的主要能源,也是我国长期以来发展的最重要驱动力,并且在未来很长一段时间内将继续作为我国社会与经济发展的主要能源。但我国长期的煤炭开采活动已经对生态环境造成严重破坏,亟待进行全面生态恢复。目前,我国煤矿生态恢复大多局限于一处或几处矿区这类小尺度范围,缺乏国土空间层面的生态修复规划,相应的生态恢复策略也仍待明确。煤矿生态恢复是一项全国性系统生态工程,应以“借自然之力恢复自然”为理念,以当地生态敏感性问题为依据,以停止破坏自然生态系统并且继续提供生态系统服务为宗旨,以改善矿区人居环境质量为出发点。全国煤矿生态恢复策略的制定基于以下4个方面:第一,以我国植被区划为基础,因地制宜地选择潜在植被类型;第二,计算归一化综合生态敏感性(NIES)用以表征煤矿生态恢复紧迫性,再借助空间自相关性分析判断不同NIES煤矿的聚集关系与模式;第三,对煤矿和当地人口分布情况进行缓冲区分析,得到煤矿生态恢复的获益人口;第四,将煤矿的NIES和煤矿恢复获益人数进行聚类分析,判断煤矿生态恢复的优先区域。综合上述结果,根据我国煤矿的空间分布情况分区域制定相应的生态恢复策略。      

构建天地一体化的全球对地观测系统--三次国际地球观测峰会与GEOSS

为深入认识地球系统,提高国家、地区和全球应对突发事件的能力;为解决人类社会发展中所面临的资源环境危机,增进人类的健康、安全和福祉;通过广泛的国际合作,构建综合、协调、持续的全球对地观测系统是实现上述目标的有效途径且已成为国际社会共识。通过对近两年来3次国际对地观测峰会概况的介绍和分析,阐述了分布式全球对地观测系统（GEOSS）的目标、范围、社会效益、技术方法和运作机制等内容。强调GEOSS成功的关键因素之一取决于其参加者能否接受并执行系统的互操作规程与统一的数据标准,以实现全球范围的数据资源共享。     

Reforming Watershed Restoration: Science in Need of Application and Applications in Need of Science

Coastal and inland waters are continuing to decline in many parts of the world despite major efforts made to restore them. This is due in part to the inadequate role that ecological science has played in shaping restoration efforts. A significant amount of fundamental ecological knowledge dealing with issues such as system dynamics, state changes, context-dependency of ecological response, and diversity is both under-used by managers and practitioners and under-developed by ecologists for use in real-world applications. Some of the science that is being ‘used’ has not been adequately tested. Thus, restoration ecology as a science and ecological restoration as a practice are in need of reform. I identify five ways in which our ecological knowledge should be influencing restoration to a far greater extent than at present including a need to: shift the focus to restoration of process and identification of the limiting factors instead of structures and single species, add ecological insurance to all projects, identify a probabilistic range of possible outcomes instead of a reference condition, expand the spatial scale of efforts, and apply hierarchical approaches to prioritization. Prominent examples of restoration methods or approaches that are commonly used despite little evidence to support their efficacy are highlighted such as the use of only structural enhancements to restore biodiversity. There are also major gaps in scientific knowledge that are of immediate need to policy makers, managers, and restoration practitioners including: predictive frameworks to guide the restoration of ecological processes, identification of social-ecological feedbacks that constrain ecosystem recovery and data to support decisions of where and how to implement restoration projects to achieve the largest gains. I encourage ecologists to respond to the demand for their scientific input so that restoration can shift from an engineering-driven process to a more sustainable enterprise that fully integrates ecological processes and social science methods.     

Urban integration of Israeli immigrants in the 1990s: a comparison of Be'er Sheva, Ashkelon, Kiriat Gat

As a result of the opening of the borders of the former Soviet Union, Israel has been the destination of numerous immigrants. This article deals with the impact of immigration between 1989 and 1994, upon three towns in the south of Israel, Be'er Sheva, Ashkelon and Kiriat Gat. These towns correspond to three socio-economic levels of urban area in the southern region. On the one hand, the immigrants from the former Soviet Union arrive with specific demands, on the other hand the political, economical and social context in Israel is very unusual. The sucessful integration of immigrants and the constructive development of the host country depend on the conformity of these demands and proposals. What the government offers in terms of housing, reception and employment in each of the three towns plays a key role: the town's social and economical heritage influences the integration of the new population while at the same time the arrival of a new workforce influences the development of the local area. Every town wants to grow and reinforce its position in the region, but only the large town, Be'er Sheva, is able to offer a certain diversity and therefore answers more fully the needs and wants of this new population. Government decisions and policies are not made to oppose the liberal economic system and to suppress the spacial inequalities despite some measures aiming at a more equal balance. The importance of heritage and the lack of communal development schemes within regions together ensure the continuation of qualitative inegalities in the south of Israel and even accentuate the problem. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Evaluating Tidal Wetland Restoration Performance Using National Estuarine Research Reserve System Reference Sites and the Restoration Performance Index (RPI)

Evaluations of tidal wetland restoration efforts suffer from a lack of appropriate reference sites and standardized methods among projects. To help address these issues, the National Estuarine Research Reserve System (NERRS) and the NOAA Restoration Center engaged in a partnership to monitor ecological responses and evaluate 17 tidal wetland restoration projects associated with five reserves. The goals of this study were to (1) determine the level of restoration achieved at each project using the restoration performance index (RPI), which compares change in parameters over time between reference and restoration sites, (2) compare hydrologic and excavation restoration projects using the RPI, (3) identify key indicator parameters for assessing restoration effectiveness, and (4) evaluate the value of the NERRS as reference sites for local restoration projects. We found that the RPI, modified for this study, was an effective tool for evaluating relative differences in restoration performance; most projects achieved an intermediate level of restoration from 2008 to 2010, and two sites became very similar to their paired reference sites, indicating that the restoration efforts were highly effective. There were no differences in RPI scores between hydrologic and excavation restoration project types. Two abiotic parameters (marsh platform elevation and groundwater level) were significantly correlated with vegetation community structure and thus can potentially influence restoration performance. Our results highlight the value of the NERRS as reference sites for assessing tidal wetland restoration projects and provide improved guidance for scientists and restoration practitioners by highlighting the RPI as a trajectory analysis tool and identifying key monitoring parameters.     

The roles of community assets in mitigating the impact of drought on grain yields in Northwest China

As an arid and semiarid region in that is frequently hit by drought, Northwest China is ecologically vulnerable. Faced with drought and other extreme events, policy makers have given top priority to the formulation and implementation of adaptation policies. This paper investigates the roles of community assets, including community social capital and access to public services, in mitigating the impact of drought in Northwest China. Based on a micro-level dataset of individual households and villages from two provinces, we find a major effect of community assets on grain yields, after controlling for other influences. Our econometric analyses show that the severity of drought in the study areas significantly reduces grain yields. The negative impact of drought, however, can be significantly mitigated in villages with better community assets. Several policies, including enhancing investments in communities’ infrastructure and providing public services related to drought, are recommended to both improve local adaptive capacity to drought and reduce poverty in the drought-prone areas.