Final dissolved organic carbon broad community intercalibration and preliminary use of DOC reference materials

A broad community intercalibration exercise for accurate measurement of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in seawater has been carried out over a period of 5 years. A set of 10 natural samples with DOC content from 40 to 200 μM C were accompanied by two glucose standards and a “zero C” blank; all sealed in glass ampoules. Samples were sent to all interested analysts for “blind” analysis; 62 laboratories in 17 countries participated. A total of 59 separate analyses were determined to be acceptable by screening criteria based on standards and blank; another nine sets of analyses did not pass the screening. The majority of the analyses, both those passing and those that did not, were performed with high temperature combustion (HTC) methods, six sets of analyses were done using wet chemical oxidation methods.From the 53 sets of acceptable HTC analyses, the coefficient of variation (%CV) for analytical comparability of the samples was 10% (“community precision”). It is estimated that the individual replicate injection precision for most instruments was approximately 2% and that no additional variability was caused by differences within the ampoules of individual samples. The additional variability over 2% was likely a result of both random and systematic differences in analytical capabilities from instrument to instrument and from day to day for individual instruments. With an arbitrary selection after the fact, smaller subsets of analysts can show comparability better than 10% and duplicate or triplicate runs on different days of the full sets of samples in several laboratories showed comparability in the 2–6.5% range. Experienced oceanic analysts, with internal or shared reference materials, can now show reproducibility and comparability at a level closer to 2%.Preliminary use of DOC reference materials by 14 participants showed day-to-day reproducibilities for their laboratories in the 2–6% range in most cases; several with poorer reproducibility do not normally perform DOC analyses on samples with concentrations as low as the deep ocean reference used here. Use of these reference materials can also give a demonstration of comparability between laboratories. For credibility of DOC analyses, it is necessary for analysts to use community reference materials and report results of their analytical performance with these references.This paper does not identify individual data nor should it be considered an evaluation of individual laboratories or analysts. The purpose is to show the summary picture of the international community of DOC analysts as it existed in the mid- to late 1990s.     

Chromium(VI) distributions in the Arctic and the Atlantic Oceans and a reassessment of the oceanic Cr cycle

Chromium(VI) concentrations ranging between 3.0 and 6.1 nmol l⁻¹ and 3.1 and 7.3 nmol l⁻¹ were found in the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, respectively. The vertical profiles show modest depletion of chromium(VI) in surface waters, but poor overall correlations between Cr(VI) and nutrient profiles. Given that Cr(VI) is the dominant oxidation state of chromium in open-ocean waters, these data are combined with literature data to reassess the distribution of Cr in oceanic waters. It is concluded that while Cr shows some characteristics of both “recycled” and “accumulated” vertical profiles, it does not fall clearly within either group.     

HPLC analysis of algal pigments: a comparison exercise among laboratories and recommendations for improved analytical performance

Pure individual and mixed pigment standards were distributed among Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) pigment analysts to estimate the variability of their spectrophotometric and chromatographic systems. To monitor the integrity of the pigments during the comparison exercise, chlorophyll and carotenoid standards were archived and periodically analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Pigment standards stored in the dark under nitrogen at − 20 °C were found to be stable for periods of at least one year. Results from three separate intercalibration exercises document a better agreement for spectrophotometric analyses than for HPLC. For the spectrophotometric comparisons, 90% of the pigments analyzed by participant laboratories were within ± 6% of the mean “consensus” values. By contrast, 65 and 85% of the laboratories agreed to within ± 10 and ± 20%, respectively, when chromatographic analyses were compared. Chlorophyll absorption measurements obtained with a diode array-type spectrophotometer were 6–9% lower than those obtained with monochromator-type spectrophotometers. These underestimates probably result from chlorophyll fluorescence contamination associated with the optical configuration of the diode array spectrophotometer. It was also determined that HPLC methods which are not capable of separating monovinyl chlorophyll a from divinyl chlorophyll a can produce 15–25% overestimates of total chlorophyll a concentration in Prochlorococcus-dominated oceanic waters. A simple dichromatic approach is described for eliminating this variable source of error caused by co-elution of these structurally-related pigments. The use of internal standards and periodic calibration checks with external standards is highly recommended for improving analytical performance.     

Simplified synthesis of an 8-hydroxyquinoline chelating resin and a study of trace metal profiles from Jellyfish Lake, Palau

We report a simplified synthesis, and some performance characteristics, for 8-hydroxyquinoline (8-HOQ) covalently bonded to a chemically resistant TosoHaas TSK vinyl polymer resin. The resin was used to concentrate trace metals from stored, acidified seawater samples collected from Jellyfish Lake, an anoxic marine lake in the Palau Islands. The Mn, Fe, and Zn profiles determined from the 8-HOQ resin extraction were similar to those determined using Chelex-100 resin. The Zn and Cd profiles did not exhibit removal by sulfide “stripping” in contrast to other anoxic marine basins. The profiles of Co and Ni also exhibited elevated concentrations in the anoxic hypolimnion. The solution speciation and saturation states for the metals were calculated using revised metal-bisulfide stability constants. The calculations suggest that the MS(HS)⁻ species dominates the solution speciation for Mn, Co, Ni, Zn, Cd, and Pb. Cu(I) is modeled as the CuS⁻ or Cu(HS)₂⁻ species, while Fe(II) behaves as the free Fe²⁺ cation. The Mn, Co, Ni, Cu and Cd concentrations appeared to be at least 10-fold undersaturated, while the Fe(II), Zn, and Pb concentrations were close to saturation with respect to their metal sulfides.     

Interstitial water chemistry of villefranche bay sediments: Trace metal diagenesis

Pore water aliquots were taken with an in situ close interval sampler: the “Peeper”.We report here the pore water concentration profiles of TCO₂, SO₄, TH₂S, Ca and the trace metals Mn, Cu, Pb, Cd and Cr from sediments of a relatively polluted area, the Villefranche Bay, on the French Riviera (close to Nice).We investigated the major ion concentrations in order to establish geochemical mass balances of organic matter oxidation. ΔTCO₂/ΔSO₄ was <−2.0, reflecting the precipitation of calcite as confirmed by the calcium profile. Reduction of sulfate led to increasing sulfide concentrations with depth.Trace metal interstitial water concentrations decreased from 63 to 5 nM, 18 to 4 nM and 6.6 to less than 2 nM for Cu, Pb and Cr, respectively. Cd showed a different pattern with top and deep values of 0.7 nM and a minimum of 0.27 nM.Thermodynamic calculations were performed which suggest the potential formation of mineral phases such as sulfides.     

The Continuous Plankton Recorder survey and the North Atlantic Oscillation: Interannual- to Multidecadal-scale patterns of phytoplankton variability in the North Atlantic Ocean

At interannual to multidecadal time scales, much of the oceanographic and climatic variability in the North Atlantic Ocean can be associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). While evidence suggests that there is a relationship between the NAO and zooplankton dynamics in the North Atlantic Ocean, the phytoplankton response to NAO-induced changes in the environment is less clear. Time series of monthly mean phytoplankton colour values, as compiled by the Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) survey, are analysed to infer relationships between the NAO and phytoplankton dynamics throughout the North Atlantic Ocean. While a few areas display highly significant (p < 0.05) trends in the CPR colour time series during the period 1948–2000, nominally significant (p < 0.20) positive trends are widespread across the basin, particularly on the continental shelves and in a transition zone stretching across the Central North Atlantic. When long-term trends are removed from both the NAO index and CPR colour time series, the correlation between them ceases to be significant. Several hypotheses are proposed to explain the observed variability in the CPR colour and its relationship with climate in the North Atlantic.     

The behaviour of dissolved Cd, Co, Zn, and Pb in North Atlantic near-surface waters (30°N/60°W–60°N/2°W)

In September 1993 (M26) and June/July 1996 (M36), a total of 239 surface samples (7 m depth) were collected on two transects across the open Atlantic Ocean (224 samples) and northwest European shelf edge area. We present an overview of the horizontal variability of dissolved Cd, Co, Zn, and Pb in between the northwest and northeast Atlantic Ocean in relation to salinity and the nutrients. Our data show a preferential incorporation of Cd relative to P in the particulate material of the surface ocean when related to previously published parallel measurements on suspended particulate matter from the same cruise. There is a good agreement with results recently estimated from a model by Elderfield and Rickaby (Nature 405 (2000) 305), who predict for the North Atlantic Ocean a best fit for α_Cd/P=[Cd/P]_POM/[Cd/P]_SW of 2.5, whereas the approach of our transect shows a α_Cd/P value of 2.6. The Co concentrations of our transects varied from <5 to 131 pmol kg⁻¹, with the lowest values in the subtropical gyre. There were pronounced elevations in the low-salinity ranges of the northwest Atlantic and towards the European shelf. The Co data are decoupled from the Mn distribution and support the hypothesis of marginal inputs as the dominant source. Zinc varied from a minimum of <0.07 nmol kg⁻¹ to a maximum of 1.2 and 4.8 nmol kg⁻¹ in regions influenced by Labrador shelf or European coastal waters, respectively. In subtropical and northeast Atlantic waters, the average Zn concentration was 0.16 nmol kg⁻¹. Zinc concentrations at nearly three quarters of the stations between 40°N and 60°N were <0.1 nmol kg⁻¹. This suggests that biological factors control Zn concentrations in large areas of the North Atlantic surface waters. The Pb data indicated that significant differences in concentration between the northwest and northeast Atlantic surface waters presently (1996) do not exist for this metal. The transects in 1993 and 1996 exhibited Pb concentrations in the northeast Atlantic surface waters of 30 to 40 pmol kg⁻¹, about a fifth to a quarter of the concentrations observed in 1981. This decline is supported by our particle flux measurements in deep waters of the same region.     

Cadmium, copper and nickel distributions at four stations in the eastern central and south Atlantic

Distributions of cadmium, copper and nickel at four stations in the eastern part of the Atlantic Ocean from 30 ° S to 34 ° N are described based on analytical results from three laboratories. The Cd and Ni profiles show nutrient-like distributions with concentrations in the deep waters increasing from north to south. Copper profiles all show gradual increases from surface to bottom with the highest concentrations occurring near bottom on the most northerly station.Variations in the deep-water Cd and Ni concentrations can be understood in terms of mixing of southern source waters with high concentrations with lower concentration northern source waters. The deep-water Cu distributions indicate a significant near-bottom source to the northern end of the section.Cadmium vs. phosphate relationships show features that result from both regeneration and mixing. Higher Cd:PO₄ ratios are seen in the southern source waters than in the northern waters, thus discounting the suggestion that the inflection in the global Cd:PO₄ relationship at PO₄ ≈ 1.3 μM originates in the southern ocean. Differential regeneration of Cd and PO₄ is seen through the equatorial oxygen minimum.     

Reactive mercury in the eastern North Atlantic and southeast Atlantic

The vertical distribution of reactive mercury has been measured at two stations in the eastern North Atlantic and one station in the southeast Atlantic in conjunction with the IOC Open Ocean Baseline Survey. The average concentrations of reactive Hg in vertical profiles ranged from 0.70 to 1.07 pM with the highest values found at the northeast Atlantic stations and the lowest at the southeast station. No significant concentration gradients were found below the surface mixed layer at the two stations in the eastern North Atlantic. At station 7, in the southeast Atlantic, an increase in reactive Hg was noted in the water adjacent to the mixed layer (35–200 m) which was coincident with an oxygen depletion, down to 20% saturation at 200 m. The concentration of reactive Hg in the North Atlantic Deep Water (0.48–1.34 pM), the Antarctic Intermediate Water (0.47 pM), the Antarctic Bottom Water (0.67–1.25 pM), and the Mediterranean Outflow Water (0.83–1.06 pM) were noted. The trends in Hg concentration in the water masses between stations showed the concentration decreasing with distance from the water mass source except for Hg in the Antarctic Bottom Water. The increase noted in this water mass was attributed to mixing with North Atlantic Deep Water and or release from bottom sediments.     

On the history of meridional overturning circulation schematic diagrams

Recent global warming caused by humans and the prediction of a reduced Atlantic Ocean meridional overturning circulation in the future has increased interest in the role of the overturning circulation in climate change. A schematic diagram of the overturning circulation called the “Great Ocean Conveyor Belt,” published by Wallace Broecker in 1987, has become a popular image that emphasizes the inter-connected ocean circulation and the northward flux of heat in the Atlantic. This seems a good time to review the development of the conveyor belt concept and summarize the history of overturning circulation schematics.In the 19th century it was thought that symmetric overturning circulation cells were located on either side of the equator in the Atlantic. As new hydrographic measurements were obtained, circulation schematics in the early 20th century began to show the inter-hemispheric overturning circulation in the Atlantic. In the second half of the 20th century schematics showed the global ocean overturning circulation including connections between the Atlantic and the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Some recent schematics of the overturning circulation show its complexities, but as more information is included these schematics have also become complex and not as easy to understand as the simple Broecker 1987 version. However, these complex schematics, especially the quantitative ones, represent valuable syntheses of our developing knowledge of the overturning circulation.     

Relationship between heavy metal accumulation and genetic variability decrease in the intertidal crab Pachygrapsus marmoratus (Decapoda; Grapsidae)

The “genetic erosion” hypothesis posits that heavy metal stress is related to a loss of genetic diversity at the population level. The genetic diversity of natural populations can, however, be affected by natural processes as well as by human impact. We studied the relationship between heavy metal bioaccumulation and genetic variability in the intertidal crab Pachygrapsus marmoratus. Tissue samples were collected from 40 individuals inhabiting four polluted and four unpolluted sites along the Tuscan coast (Mediterranean basin), and were examined for four heavy metals (arsenic, As, cadmium, Cd, lead, Pb, and copper, Cu). We also assessed the genetic variability of 235 crabs from the same localities using six microsatellite loci.Our results show that the bioaccumulation levels of these individuals accurately reflect the levels of pollution in their immediate environment, and that heavy metals accumulate more in the hepatopancreas than in the gills. Moreover, populations from polluted sites have significantly less genetic variability, measured as mean standardized d², and a significantly lower percentage of unrelated individuals, than populations from unpolluted sites. This evidence supports the “genetic erosion” hypothesis for metal heavy exposure in natural environments.     

Why are rings regularly shed in the western equatorial Atlantic but not in the western Pacific?

The western equatorial Atlantic is characterized by the formation and shedding of 3–4 large anticyclonic rings per year. These rings originate from the North Brazil Current which, in response to the vanishing wind stress curl (over the ocean interior), retroflects and turns eastward at around 4°N. After their formation and shedding the rings propagate toward the northwest along the South American coast carrying an annual average of about 4Sv. As such, the rings constitute an important part of the meridional heat flux in the Atlantic.The same cannot be said, however, of the western equatorial Pacific. Here, the situation is entirely different even though the South Equatorial Current retroflects at roughly the same latitude as its Atlantic counterpart, the North Brazil Current. Although the South Equatorial Current retroflection is flanked by two quasi-permanent eddies (the so-called Halmahera and the Mindanao eddies), these eddies are an integral part of the current itself and are not shed. Consequently, they are not associated with any meridional heat flux. An important question is, then, why the two oceans behave in such a fundamentally different way even though the source of the rings, the retroflected currents, are very similar in the two oceans.To answer this question, the two oceans are compared using recently developed analytical and numerical models for the western equatorial oceans. It is first pointed out that, according to recent developments in the modelling of the western equatorial Atlantic, the North Brazil Current retroflection rings are formed, shed and drift to the west because, in the Atlantic, this is the only way by which the momentum flux of the approaching and retroflecting current can be balanced. In this scenario, the northwestward flow force exerted by the approaching and retroflecting North Brazil Current (analogous to the force created by a rocket) is balanced by the southwestward force exerted by the rings as they are formed (analogous in some sense to the kickback associated with a firing gun).On the other hand, in the western equatorial Pacific, the formation and shedding of rings is unnecessary because the southward flowing Mindanao Current provides an alternative mechanism for balancing the northward momentum flux of the South Equatorial Current. This implies that it is the absence of a counter current (such as the Mindanao) in the western Atlantic that causes the formation and shedding of North Brazil Current rings. A remaining difficulty with the above scenario is that most colliding and retroflecting currents (i.e. the Mindanao and South Equatorial currents) are not “balanced” in the sense that they cannot be stationary but rather must drift along the coast. It is shown that, in the case of the western Pacific, the long-shore migration is arrested by the Indonesian Throughflow which allows the “unbalanced” fraction of the approaching currents to leak out into the Indian Ocean. This resolves the above difficulty and allows the retroflection to be approximately steady.     

The discrete methods for free vibration analyses of an immersed beam carrying an eccentric tip mass with rotary inertia

In this paper, a beam without contact with water is called the “dry” beam and the one in contact with water is called the “wet” beam. For a partially (or completely) immersed uniform beam carrying an eccentric tip mass possessing rotary inertia, the conventional analytical (closed-form) solution is achieved by considering the inertial forces and moments of the tip mass and rotary inertia as the boundary conditions at the tip end of the beam. However, it has been found that the approximate solution for the last problem may be achieved by two techniques: Method 1 and Method 2. In Method 1, the basic concept is the same as the conventional analytical method; but in Method 2, the tip end of the beam is considered as a free end, while the inertial forces and moments induced by the tip mass and rotary inertia are considered as the external loads applied at the tip end of the beam. The main differences between the formulation of Method 1 and that of Method 2 are: In Method 1, the “normal” shapes of the “dry” beam are functions of the frequency-dependent boundary conditions but the external loads at the tip end are equal to zero; On the contrary, in Method 2, the “normal” mode shapes of the “dry” beam are determined based on the zero boundary conditions at the tip end of the beam but the external loads at the tip end due to the inertial effects of the tip mass and rotary inertia must be taken into consideration for the free vibration analysis of the “wet” beam. Numerical results reveal that the approximate solution obtained from Method 2 are very close to that from Method 1 if the tip mass moment of inertia is negligible. Besides, the two approximate solutions are also very close to the associated analytical (closed-form) solution or the finite element solution. In general, it is hoped that there exist several methods for tackling the same problem so that one may have more choices to incorporate with the specified cases. It is believed that the two approximate methods presented in this paper will be significant from this point of view.     

A turbidity survey of Narragansett Bay

A turbidity survey of Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, was made during the summer months of 1971 and included measurements of the attenuation function for scalar irradiance for daylight and the volume attenuation function for white tungsten light at various depths. One hundred and three stations were made at 17 different locations. Variations in the optical parameters were large, one standard deviation at any given location ranging from 7 to 23 per cent of the mean value. This variation was only slightly dependent on the state of the tidal currents, depth of the location, or weather factors. The magnitude of turbidity variations was almost 4-fold over a north-south range of 31 km within the estuary, with clearest water at the southern mouths of the Bay. A good correlation exists between turbidity parameters and Autumn values of suspended-material concentration found by Morton (1967), with both data sets showing highest turbidity and suspended concentrations in the West Passage of the Bay. “Wedges” and “bulges” of clear water were detected throughout the Bay but were most evident at the southern (Atlantic Ocean) end.Although it was not possible to fully define the parameters producing these temporal and geographic variations in estuarine turbidity, it is suggested that knowledge of these parameters can assist those concerned with the physical and biological state of an estuary, as well as divers and photographers plying their trades within its boundaries.     

Outflow of trace metals into the Laptev Sea by the Lena River

Freshwater concentrations confirm the pristine character of the Lena River environment as already pointed-out in a previous study with a limited set of data (Martin et al., 1993). Total dissolved concentrations of the freshwater are 13.8 ± 1.6 nM, Cu, 4.4 ± 0.1 nM, Ni, 0.054 ± 0.047 nM, Cd, 642 ± 208 nM, Fe, 0.2–0.3 nM Pb and 1.2 ± 1.0 nM, Zn. For Zn and Pb, a simple mixing of the Lena River waters with the Arctic waters is observed. Relationships with salinity suggest that for Cu, Ni and Cd, there is a mobilization of the dissolved fraction from the suspended matter, with an increase of the dissolved concentration of 1.5, 3 and 6 times, respectively. For Fe, the total dissolved concentrations follow an exponential decrease in the mixing zone and 80% of the total “dissolved” Fe is removed from the solution. For Cu, Ni, Cd and Fe, the riverine end-members are 20 nM, 12 nM, 0.3 nM and 47 nM, respectively. When considering the input of total dissolved metals to the Arctic Ocean, the fraction attributed to the freshwaters from the Arctic rivers appears to be small (4% of the input of dissolved metal to the Arctic Ocean for Cd, 27% for Cu, 11 % for Ni and 2% for Zn). Metal concentrations in the Laptev Sea and Arctic Ocean are very similar, indicating a generally homogeneous distribution in the areas sampled.     

The near surface tropical Atlantic in 1982–1984: Results from a numerical simulation and a data analysis

Isotherm vertical displacements within the thermocline and surface currents were investigated in the tropical Atlantic Ocean from 12°N to 12°S in 1982–1984, the period of the FOCAL-SEQUAL experiment. The study is based on a numerical simulation of an oceanic general circulation model tuned for the study of the equatorial regions, and on the analysis of the large scale thermocline displacements and currents using observed temperature profiles. Ground truth is provided by temperature and currents from moorings, records from inverted echo sounders and tide gauges as well as from drifting buoys. Comparison of the analysis with the ground truth shows that some important aspects of the low frequency variability are “captured” by the analysis when the data base is large enough.On large scales, the simulation generally resembles the analysis. Along the equator, the upwelling signal propagates eastward. The seasonal set-up of the westerly winds is associated with large westward currents, and a following overshoot of the zonal dynamic topography. Otherwise, the zonal dynamic topography is in near-equilibrium with the winds. The North Equatorial Countercurrent is portrayed comparably in the analysis and the simulation, where, after starting as a narrow eastward flow near 5°N, it extends northward through the northern summer. Interannual variations are found both in the analysis and the simulation. In particular, the thermocline flattened early in 1984.However, the simulation differs in significant respects from the real world: the equatorial undercurrent is too weak in the east and the model produces too much variability south of the equator. The 20°C isotherm is too shallow above the core of the thermocline, and the surface layer is too stratified. Because the surface layer is where the wind stress, main forcing of the model is applied, major effort will have to be devoted to parameterizing the near-surface downward mixing of momentum, heat and fresh water.     

Tracking the last sea-level cycle: seafloor morphology and shallow stratigraphy of the latest Quaternary New Jersey middle continental shelf

Seafloor geomorphology and surficial stratigraphy of the New Jersey middle continental shelf provide a detailed record of sea-level change during the last advance and retreat of the Laurentide ice sheet (120 kyr B.P. to Present). A NW–SE-oriented corridor on the middle shelf between water depths of 40 m (the mid-shelf “paleo-shore”) and 100 m (the Franklin “paleo-shore”) encompasses 500 line-km of 2D Huntec boomer profiles (500–3500 Hz), an embedded 4.6 km² 3D volume, and a 490 km² swath bathymetry map. We use these data to develop a relative stratigraphy. Core samples from published studies also provide some chronological and sedimentological constraints on the upper <5 m of the stratigraphic succession.The following stratigraphic units and surfaces occur (from bottom to top): (1) “R”, a high-amplitude reflection that separates sediment >46.5 kyr old (by AMS ¹⁴C dating) from overlying sediment wedges; (2) the outer shelf wedge, a marine unit up to 50 m thick that onlaps “R”; (3) “Channels”, a reflection sub-parallel to the seafloor that incises “R”, and appears as a dendritic system of channels in map view; (4) “Channels” fill, the upper portion of which is sampled and known to represent deepening-upward marine sediments 12.3 kyr in age; (5) the “T” horizon, a seismically discontinuous surface that caps “Channels” fill; (6) oblique ridge deposits, coarse-grained shelly units comprised of km-scale, shallow shelf bedforms; and (7) ribbon-floored swales, bathymetric depressions parallel to modern shelf currents that truncate the oblique ridges and cut into surficial deposits.We interpret this succession of features in light of a global eustatic sea-level curve and the consequent migration of the coastline across the middle shelf during the last 120 kyr. The morphology of the New Jersey middle shelf shows a discrete sequence of stratigraphic elements, and reflects the pulsed episodicity of the last sea-level cycle. “R” is a complicated marine/non-marine erosional surface formed during the last regression, while the outer shelf wedge represents a shelf wedge emplaced during a minor glacial retreat before maximum Wisconsin lowstand (i.e., marine oxygen isotope stage 3.1). “Channels” is a widespread fluvial subarial erosion surface formed at the late Wisconsin glacial maximum 22 kyr B.P. The shoreline migrated back across the mid-shelf corridor non-uniformly during the period represented by “Channels” fill. Oblique ridges are relict features on the New Jersey middle shelf, while the ribbon-floored swales represent modern shelf erosion. There is no systematic relationship between modern seafloor morphology and the very shallowly buried stratigraphic succession.     

The “separation formula” and its application to the Pacific Ocean

The “separation formula”, a new method for computing the adiabatic inter-hemispheric meridional transport, is applied to the Pacific Ocean. The method involves an integration of the wind stress along a “horseshoe” path. It begins at the separation point of the East Australian Current, continues eastward across the ocean, progresses northward along the continental boundary, and then turns back westward across the ocean to the separation point of the Kuroshio. Since the Pacific is closed on the northern side, such an integration gives the wind-driven Indonesian throughflow.The analytical formulas show that, in order for the adiabatic wind-driven throughflow to exist, it is necessary that there be an asymmetry in the winds associated with the two zonal cross-sections connecting the (northern and southern) separation points in the west to the continents in the east. It turns out that these asymmetries in the Pacific are relatively small and, consequently, do not allow for a significant (i.e. more than one Sverdrup) Indonesian transport. Specifically, in the Pacific, this wind-driven transport is directed to the south, implying a very small net Indian-to-Pacific transport rather than a Pacific-to-Indian transport. The adiabatic model fails, therefore, to explain the observed Pacific-to-Indian throughflow of 5-6 Sv.When an upwelling is added to the model (to simulate diabatic processes), then one obtains the result that all the water upwelled in the Pacific must exit the Pacific via the Indonesian seas, i.e. the wind field is effectively blocking the oceanic region between Australia and South America, forcing the upwelled water into the Indian Ocean. This model suggests, therefore, that the observed Pacific-to-Indian throughflow is a measure of the upwelling in the Pacific.     

Chemical fractionation of zinc versus cadmium among other metals nickel, copper and lead in the northern North Sea

Concentrations of dissolved Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb were measured in water samples collected during a cruise with R.V Pelagia (29-6/14-7-1993) in the northern North Sea and N.E. Atlantic Ocean. At least six depths (0–90 m) were sampled with modified Go-Flo samplers from a rubber zodiac. In the study area, the first 25 m were well mixed and stratification occurred below this depth. The local bloom of Emiliania huxleyi hardly affected the trace metals concentration, except for some removal of Cd as seen from its correlation with nitrate. The mean dissolved concentrations were for Ni (3.66 nM), Cu (1.61 nM), Zn (4.5 nM), Cd (48 pM) and Pb (108 pM). These concentrations are among the lowest reported for the North Sea and are of similar magnitude to those found in the eastern North Atlantic at the same latitude. Zn was the only exception with values 10 times higher compared to those in the Atlantic Ocean, suggesting external inputs, mainly atmospheric and possibly from surrounding land masses. The observed ratio Zn:Cd in the North Sea and estuaries is in between the high ratio 600–900 for continental sources and the low ratio 5–10 for oceanic waters. Latter low ratio is consistent with the 21-fold stronger inorganic complexation of Cd in seawater which, in combination with the preferential biological uptake of Zn, may lead to the observed about hundredfold fractionation of Zn versus Cd in the marine system. Other processes may play a role but would need further investigation. The dissolved Pb values tend to be lower than found before in the North Sea, indicating decreasing inventories due to reduced anthropogenic emissions.