Relationships between air mass properties and mesoscale rainfall in New Zealand's Southern Alps

This paper identifies relationships between air mass properties and mesoscale rainfall when moist air blows over New Zealand's Southern Alps from the Tasman Sea. Around 50% of the variance in six-hourly rain volumes summed across three separate cross-mountain raingauge transects and in six-hourly rain volume spilling across the alpine divide are statistically explained by the following properties of the approaching air mass: relative humidity, wind velocity normal to the mountains, air mass stability and synoptically induced upward motion. These factors also explain about 25% (r≈0.5) of the variance in the downwind distance reached by the spillover rainfall. For the highest 10% of six-hourly rainfalls, spillover distance and magnitude are negatively correlated with the 700 or 500 hPa temperature. Multiple linear regression equations suitable for predicting rainfall intensity and spillover are developed. A progression is described in the magnitude and depth of vertical motion and resulting condensation rates over the mountains as the properties of the incoming air mass evolve through a storm. These changes, together with greater downwind advection of ice particles compared to raindrops, explain the observed statistical relationships between the air mass properties and mountain rainfall.     

A Study of Orographic Blocking and Barrier Wind Development Upstream of the Southern Alps, New Zealand

Summary Upper level and surface wind data for 1994 are used to provide an initial identification of the orographic effect on regional airflow patterns upwind of the mountain barrier. A case study of the development of upstream blocking and barrier jets is also provided. The predominance of gradient airflow from between northwest and southwest through this region results in frequent trans-mountain winds. The mountains are seen to have a major effect on airflow in the lowest 2000 m above sea level, with clear evidence of orographic blocking and barrier wind development. Some variability in the extent of this blocking was noted during 1994, which appeared to be associated with changes in the synoptic circulation and air mass characteristics. The frequent occurrence of southwesterly winds between 300 m and 2000 m indicates significant deflection of the predominant winds to follow the southwest-northeast orientation of the mountains. These southwesterly barrier winds occur in opposition to the apparent pressure gradient. Northeasterly barrier winds occur mainly below 300 m, and represent a down-gradient, localised flow that is frequently separated from overlying northwesterly gradient winds by a transitional layer, within which the wind backs with height. The controls of the extent of orographic blocking are only assessed superficially, due to the lack of good thermodynamic data upstream of the mountains, although a combination of wind speed and atmospheric stability is obviously important. These initial results provide a useful insight into the extent of orographic effects on regional windfields, which will serve as the basis for future observational and modelling studies. Received June 11, 1998 Revised April 16, 1999     

Observations of foehn onset in the Southern Alps, New Zealand

Summary Local scale windfield and air mass characteristics during the onset of two foehn wind events in an alpine hydro-catchment are presented. Grounding of the topographically modified foehn was found to be dependent on daytime surface heating and topographic channelling of flow. The foehn front was observed to advance down-valley until the valley widened significantly. The foehn wind appeared to decouple from the surface downstream of the accelerated flow associated with the valley constriction, and to be lifted above local thermally generated circulations including a lake breeze. Towards evening, the foehn front retreated up valley in response to reduced surface heating and the intrusion into the study area of a deep and cool air mass associated with a regional scale mountain-plain circulation. Differences in the local windfield observed during both case study events reflect the importance of different thermal and dynamic forcings on airflow in complex terrain. These are the result of variation in surface energy exchanges, channelling and blocking of airflow. Observations presented here have both theoretical and applied implications with regard to forecasting foehn onset, wind hazard management, recreational activities and air quality management in alpine settings. Received January 23, 2001 Revised October 17, 2001     

江苏一次大暴雨高低空急流的数值研究

本文运用我国新一代中尺度数值模式(GRAPES)对2004年6月23—25日长江中下游地区大暴雨过程进行了数值模拟研究,数值模拟和诊断分析结果表明,暴雨的落区和强度与高低空急流的位置及强度密切相关,低空急流位置北(南)移,垂直上升运动中心的位置也随之北(南)移,对应暴雨的落区也随之移动,暴雨中心强度与垂直上升运动的强度变化趋势一致,上升运动中心强,对应暴雨中心的雨量大。因此,改变高低空急流位置及强度,实际上是改变高空辐散和低空辐合区的位置及强度,改变了高低空急流耦合的位置,主要是影响了垂直上升运动的位置和强度,进而影响了暴雨的落区和强度。高低空急流耦合及上升运动加强,是暴雨发生和雨量增幅的一种重要物理机制。     

安徽沿江一次连续性暴雨过程中急流特征分析

利用国家自动气象站和ECMWF-interim再分析资料,从高低空急流的角度对2016年7月1—4日安徽沿江地区的连续性暴雨的成因进行了探讨。研究表明,7月1—4日,高空急流出现明显的北跳、强度增强,低层西南急流强度则达到2016年最大值。伴随着高低空急流的异常变化,在安徽沿江地区上空形成了强烈的高空辐散和低空辐合,同时高低空急流耦合激发形成次级环流,使得旺盛的上升运动一直延伸至对流层上层。高低空急流耦合在1—2日比较强烈,3日起耦合强度逐渐减弱,导致小时雨强进一步减弱。另一方面,低空急流的增强也使得孟加拉湾的水汽源源不断的输送至安徽沿江地区,近地面至3 000 m高度上南风输送为沿江地区连续性暴雨提供了充沛的水汽。     

Meso-scale surface wind changes associated with the passage of cold fronts along the eastern side of the Southern Alps,New Zealand

Summary The movement of cold fronts along the eastern side of the Southern Alps has been studied in detail during the Southerly Change Experiment (SOUCHEX). An enhanced network of surface wind monitoring stations was established in the Canterbury region of the South Island to allow detailed study of meso-scale wind fields during the passage of fronts. Fivesoutherly changes occurred during the experiment, one of which failed to produce a clear wind change over much of the area. The often erratic movement of these fronts along the eastern side of the mountains is illustrated by isochrone maps of the onset of the wind change. Other general characteristics of these events include their shallowness (1000–1500 m deep) and in most cases their abrupt onset. Detailed analysis of anemograph data collected during SOUCHEX indicates great variability in the surface wind field associated with passage of the fronts. Maps of the meso-scale wind field plotted for the first southerly change of the 14 January 1988 illustrate the complexity of the wind changes experienced over the eastern South Island in particular. The arrival of the cold fronts at individual sites provided features of air mass interaction which appear to relate to time of day, and regional and local site factors. Variations, in wind, temperature and relative humidity provide clear examples of both single and double air mass changes. However, nocturnal changes seem to be less distinct due to lower ambient temperatures and increased boundary layer stability.With 9 Figures     

不同类型大尺度环流背景下强对流天气的短时临近预报预警研究

利用乌鲁木齐多普勒天气雷达、风廓线雷达、GPS/MET水汽探测仪以及FY—2E/G卫星、区域加密自动气象站资料和GFS/NCEP 0.5°×0.5°逐6 h再分析资料,对2015年6月9日18:30—20:00出现在乌鲁木齐的短时强降水过程进行分析,重点分析了强降水过程的环境场和中小尺度特征。结果表明：该短时强降水过程有4个降水集中时段,每个时段约为10~15 min。降水发生在高压脊前低槽后部的西北气流控制之下,700 hPa β中尺度西北急流上γ尺度对流单体是短时强降水直接影响系统。该降水过程水汽来自于乌鲁木齐周围并在2~3 h内快速集中。对流不稳定潜势从午后14 h开始发展,到降水开始仅4.5 h。沿西北低空急流出现多个γ中尺度对流单体以“列车效应”形式依次影响乌鲁木齐造成短时强降水,对流单体组合反射率最强达45~50 dBz,生命史仅15~20 min。降水发生在局地新生中尺度对流云团西南侧云顶亮温TBB梯度最大处,TBB最低达-44 ℃,对流云团生命史2~3 h。

     

北京7.21暴雨低涡演变的湿位涡分析

通过诊断再分析资料和数值模拟结果,从中层湿位涡守恒和低层湿位涡变化的角度分别对北京7.21暴雨过程中中尺度低涡的演变进行分析。结果表明,暴雨前期,对流层中高层高湿位涡的冷空气扩散南下,冷空气到达华北地区上空时,在有利等熵面的引导下从稳定层结向不稳定层结快速下滑,产生了剧烈的正涡度个别变化,使得低涡得到发展加强。另一方面,等熵面上冷暖空气的剧烈交汇在增强雨势的同时,也使得对流层低层至中层产生明显的涡度制造。在不考虑稳定度影响时,低层的非绝热过程引起的湿位涡制造与低涡发展有着很好的正相关,二者在位置上和量级上都有很好的对应。进一步分析表明,非绝热加热的水平不均匀分布是引起湿位涡变化的主要原因。     

青南高原大气降水变化规律及其对黄河上游地区水资源的影响

利用1959～1997年黄河上游地区降水、流量资料,用EOF、REOF等数理统计方法,分析了黄河上游地区降水与流量之间的关系,并对黄河上游地区的水资源进行了估算。分析得出：龙羊峡年入库流量的丰枯主要与黄河上游地区的年降水量有关,春季流量的丰枯主要与上一年秋季的流量、春季的降水量有关,夏、秋季流量的丰枯主要与同期的降水量有关。     

Relationships among the monsoon-like southwest Australian circulation,the Southern Annular Mode,and winter rainfall over southwest Western Australia

This study examines the relationships among the monsoon-like southwest Australian circulation (SWAC), the Southern Annular Mode (SAM), and southwest Western Australia winter rainfall (SWR), based on observed rainfall, reanalysis datasets, and the results of numerical modeling. By decomposing the SWAC into two components using a linear model, i.e. the component related to SAM (RSAM) and the component unrelated to SAM (SWACI*), we find it is the SWACI* that shows a significant influence on SWR. Similarly, it is the component of SAM associated with SWAC that exhibits an impact on SWR, whereas the component unrelated to SAM. A similar result is obtained in terms of the circulation associated with SWAC and the SAM. These facts suggest the SAM plays an indirect role in influencing SWR, and raise the possibility that SWAC acts as a bridge between the SAM and SWR, by which the SAM passes its influences onto SWR. This is due to the fact that the variations of SWAC are closely linked to the thermal contrast between land and sea across the southern Indian Ocean and southwest Australia. By contrast, the SAM does not significantly relate to this thermal structure, particularly for the component unrelated to SWAC. The variations of surface sea temperature over the southern Indian Ocean contribute to the favored rainfall circulation patterns. This finding is supported by the numerical modeling results. The strong coupling between SWAC and SWR may be instrumental for understanding the interactions between SWR and the southern Indian Ocean, and provides another perspective in examining the variations in SWR.     

Evolution of moist potential vorticity during a warm-zone heavy rainfall event in the Pearl River Delta

First,based on routine meteorological data,the synoptic characteristics of a heavy warm-sector rainfall that occurred on June 13,2008 in the Pearl River Delta were analyzed.Second,a mesoscale numerical model,Weather Research and Forecasting(WRFV2.2),was used to simulate the heavy rainfall. Diagnostic analyses were done of moist potential vorticity(MPV)for its horizontal components(MPV2) and vertical components(MPV1)based on the simulation results of WRFV2.2 to identify the mechanism of the rainfall development.The results showed that the heavy rainfall occurred when there were high MPV1 in the upper levels and low MPV1 and high MPV2 in the lower levels.Disturbances of high MPV1 in the upper levels came from the southwest or northwest,those of low MPV1 in the lower levels came from the southwest,and those of high MPV2 came from the south.Disturbances of low MPV1 at low levels were the direct cause of convective instability.Enhanced vertical shear of meridional wind led to increased MPV2 at lower levels,strengthened baroclinicity,and active warm and wet flows.These distributions of MPV helped to trigger the release of unstable energy and produce warm-sector heavy rainfall.As it integrates the evolution of dynamic and thermal fields,MPV is able to reveal the development of this heavy rainfall effectively.     

Interannual and decadal variations of snow cover over Qinghai-Xizang Plateau and their relationships to summer monsoon rainfall in China

Interannual and decadal variations of winter snow cover over the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau (QXP) are analyzed by using monthly mean snow depth data set of 60 stations over QXP for the period of 1958 through 1992. It is found that the winter snow cover over QXP bears a pronounced quasi-biennial oscillation, and it underwent an obvious decadal transition from a poor snow cover period to a rich snow cover period in the late 1970’s during the last 40 years.It is shown that the summer rainfall in the eastern China is closely associated with the winter snow cover over QXP not only in the interannual variation but also in the decadal variation. A clear relationship exists in the quasi-biennial oscillation between the summer rainfall in the northern part of North China and the southern China and the winter snow cover over QXP. Furthermore, the summer rainfall in the four climate divisions of Qinling-Daba Mountains, the Yangtze-Huaihe River Plain, the upper and lower reaches of the Yangtze River showed a remarkable transition from drought period to rainy period in the end of 1970’s, in good correspondence with the decadal transition of the winter snow cover over QXP.     

Neuroid BP-type Model Applied to the Study of Monthly Rainfall Forecasting

A neuroid BP-type three-layer mapping model is used for monthly rainfall forecasting in terms of 1946-1985 Nanjing monthly precipitation records as basic sequences and the model has the form i × j ＝ 8 × 3, K = 1; by steadily modifying the weighing coefficient, long-range monthly forecasts for January to December, 1986 are constructed and 1986 month-to-month predictions are made based on, say, the January measurement for February rainfall and so on, with mean absolute error reaching 6,07 and 5,73 mm, respectively. Also, with a different monthly initial value for June through September, 1994, neuroid forecasting is done, indicating the same result of the drought in Nanjing dur-ing the summer, an outcome that is in sharp agreement with the observation.     

青藏高原东部暴雨的中尺度有效位能收支分析

针对2018年7月10-11日青藏高原东部一次暴雨过程,利用模式模拟资料分析了有效位能分布特征,成因及其对降水发展演变的影响.结果表明,有效位能主要分布在对流层低层4km以下和高层8-14km,高层有效位能和降水有更好的对应性西北冷平流和降水粒子下落的蒸发作用是低层有效位能高值中心的主要成因,而降水过程释放潜热带来的热...     

影响江南春雨年际变化的前期海洋信号及可能机理

利用1980—2017年华南地区303个国家级地面气象站逐小时降水数据、ERA-Interim再分析资料,分析华南前汛期（4—6月）降水统计特征,定义站点上短时（1—6 h）、中等时长（7—12 h）和长时（>12 h）降水事件,对比降水量、频次和强度在南海季风爆发前后的变化,以及所定义的西部内陆、东部内陆、沿海地区的异同。结果表明：（1）南海季风爆发后,研究区域平均而言,三类降水事件的降水量增多、小时降水强度增强,短时、长时降水事件发生频次增多,而中等时长降水事件发生频次有所减少。（2）从空间分布来看,南海季风爆发后,小时降水强度在整个华南地区均增强,西部内陆时长大于6 h的降水事件尤为明显;降水事件的发生频次在西部内陆和沿海地区升高,而东部内陆时长大于6 h的降水事件发生频次降低,因此,季风爆发后西部内陆和沿海地区的总降水量均显著增大,而东部内陆的总降水量变化不大。（3）西部内陆降水事件主要在夜间开始发生,持续时间越长的事件越早开始,且由西向东逐渐推迟;东部内陆短时降水事件主要在14时（北京时,下同）左右开始,季风爆发后更为明显,而时长大于6 h的降水事件的开始时间和峰值时间无明显的分布规律;沿海地区短时降水事件在季风爆发前主要于05—08时开始,季风爆发后,在海岸线约50 km以内仍然如此,而较远离海岸线的短时降水事件主要于14时开始,沿海地区长时降水事件在季风爆发前、后都倾向于在夜间开始,并在日间出现峰值。

     

Q矢量、螺旋度、位涡及位涡反演在台风暴雨研究中的应用进展

Q矢量、螺旋度、位涡及位涡反演是近代天气学中的先进动力诊断工具。Q矢量被视为估算垂直运动的有效方法。螺旋度是表征流体边旋转边沿旋转方向运动的动力性质的物理量。位涡是一个综合反映大气热力和动力性质的物理量并具有守恒性和可反演性。位涡反演是指在给定位涡分布和边界条件且假定运动是平衡的情况下,可以反演出同一时刻的风、温度、位势高度等物理量的分布。台风暴雨形成机理及其预报研究一直是大气科学研究领域的重点和业务天气预报工作的难点。文章将着重总结分析国内外有关将Q矢量、螺旋度、位涡及位涡反演方法应用于台风暴雨研究的进展状况,并对未来如何综合应用上述诊断工具进行了展望。     

未来极端降水对气候平均变暖敏感性的蒙特卡罗模拟试验

利用Weibull分布拟合逐日降水的原始分布模式,并基于统计降尺度和蒙特卡罗随机模拟方法,对中国东部区域各站逐日极端降水量在未来气候变暖条件下的响应特征进行统计数值试验.结果表明,在全球变暖背景下,区域平均温度的改变即可导致区域极端降水概率分布特征的变动.从两个典型代表区域的预估结果中可见,长江中下游南部平均降水量对平均温度升高有正响应,模拟得到的区域极端降水概率分布曲线有明显的向右平移,导致大量级的极端降水的再现期缩短即概率增大.山东及渤海湾区域平均降水量对平均温度升高有负响应,模拟得到的区域极端降水概率密度分布尺度参数变小更明显,即方差增大,表现为左右两侧概率密度增加,同样导致大量级的极端降水再现期缩短即概率增大.本文仅考察了气候均值改变条件下,未来区域气候极端值的概率预估的可行性方案.对于未来气候方差的变化并未作试验,但理论上已经证明,未来气候极端值的概率对于气候方差变化的敏感性可能更大.由于目前尚未整卵出考察方差变化的较为完整的实际观测资料,该问题还有待进一步深入研究.     

江淮流域梅雨期降水的空间非均匀分布与前期海温的关系

利用中国气象局提供的1978-2007年全国753站逐日降水资料、NECP/NCAR提供的逐日再分析资料和NOAA提供的第2套扩展重建海温资料,从区域整体角度确定了近30 a（1978-2007年）江淮流域梅雨期.采用EOF（empirical orthogonal function,经验正交函数）分析,讨论了江淮流域梅雨期降水空间非均匀分布特征,着重研究了影响江淮梅雨空间非均匀分布的前期海温关键区及关键时段.结果表明：全区一致梅雨旱涝与前期冬季北太平洋鄂霍次克海附近的海温异常有密切的联系.当前期冬季该海域海温偏高时,冬季风偏弱,对应后期梅雨一致偏涝,反之则偏旱.5月南海至台湾和菲律宾以东附近海温偏低,江淮流域梅雨量偏多,反之则偏少.梅雨的南北反相分布与前期秋冬季中印度洋的海温有非常密切的关系,当前一年10月至当年1月中印度洋海温偏高时,梅雨期850 hPa江淮之间易形成切变线,有利于梅雨区“南旱北涝”,反之则“南涝北旱”.梅雨的东西反相分布与前期秋、冬季热带中东太平洋的海温关系密切,ENSO事件有可能通过影响西太平洋副热带高压的东西位置,从而引起东亚大气环流异常,导致梅雨东西分布反相.前期秋季和冬季热带中东太平洋海温偏高年（对应ENSO暖事件）,西太副高位置偏西,有利于梅雨区“东旱西涝”,反之则“东涝西旱”.     

不同分布型厄尔尼诺事件及对中国次年夏季降水的可能影响

利用1951—2009年线性最优插值全球海温资料,NCEP/NCAR再分析大气资料,以及中国160个站的降水资料等,重点分析了不同分布型厄尔尼诺事件的海温演变特征及对应的热带大气的响应情况,并进一步探讨了不同分布型厄尔尼诺事件对次年夏季中国降水的可能影响。根据厄尔尼诺事件发展达到盛期时海温距平的分布特点,将1950年以来的厄尔尼诺事件分为东部型、中部型和混合型。不同分布型厄尔尼诺事件的海温演变及后期的发展都表现出较为明显的差异,对应的热带太平洋上空向外长波辐射距平分布及热带印度洋-太平洋上空的沃克环流异常也表现出明显的不同。在厄尔尼诺的次年夏季,通过影响850hPa风场、水汽输送及500hPa西太平洋副热带高压系统,东部型、中部型及混合型厄尔尼诺事件可能分别导致中国雨带呈现南方型(III类)、中间型(II类)和北方型(I类)的分布特点。     

2006—2015年山东短时强降水时空分布特征

利用山东2006—2015年5—9月123个国家级气象观测站10 a逐小时降水量资料,统计分析了山东短时强降水的时空分布特征,结果表明：1）站次时空分布不均。鲁南易出现短时强降水,2013年最多,达到了564站次,7月最多,平均207站次,多出现在傍晚前后和凌晨。2）极值时空分布差异较大。10 a单站极值大值区分布在鲁西北、鲁南和半岛东部,2009年最多,为17站,且多夜间发生;10 a中年度极值均出现在13:00—次日02:00,8月最多,为7次。3）5、6、9月局地和小范围短时强降水天气过程所占比例较大,7—8月大范围短时强降水过程明显增加。