Long-term variations of wind regime in the free atmosphere over the European territory of Russia

The time series of seasonal average values and standard deviations of wind speed components at the isobaric surfaces of 850 and 200 hPa are analyzed on the basis of the data of upper-air observations carried out in 1961–2003 at 18 stations of the Russian Federation territory. The energy spectra of wind speed components in the first and in the second halves of the whole period under study are compared. On the whole, an increase in average values of U-component and decrease in average values of V-component took place both in upper and lower troposphere, and the largest variations occurred in winter season in the upper troposphere. Average coefficients of linear trends of average winter values for the whole region amount to 0.57 and ?0.62 m/s per 10 years for the wind components U and V at the isobaric surface of 200 hPa, respectively. The increase in the standard deviations of both components was registered in the upper troposphere in winter period almost on the whole territory. The average coefficients of linear trends of standard deviations at the isobaric surface of 200 hPa in winter for the whole region amount to 0.53 and 0.61 m/s per 10 years for U- and V-components, respectively. The intensity of the annual cycle and processes of intraseasonal scale both in the lower and upper troposphere increased in the second half of the whole interval under study.     

基于三台测风激光雷达的大气湍流和三维风场研究

为了获取大气湍流和空间三维风场结构,利用3台同型号的测风激光雷达开展协同观测试验。（1）利用虚拟铁塔协同观测技术开展大气湍流探测,与香河102 m铁塔安装的三维超声风速仪观测结果做对比,32 m处高频（10 Hz）风速的相关系数高达0.92,平均误差为0.77 m/s,均方根误差为0.41 m/s;大气湍流强度（TKE）的相关系数高达0.99,平均误差为?0.02 m2/s2,均方根误差为0.08 m2/s2,并且协同观测的高频风速与三维超声风速仪的观测结果具有相同的频谱结构。（2）利用扫描协同观测技术开展三维风场探测,与铁塔上的常规测风设备相比,其90 m高度处的水平风速和风向的相关系数分别为0.92和0.93,平均误差为?0.41 m/s和0°,均方根误差为0.73 m/s和34°。相比于单台测风激光雷达,基于3台测风激光雷达协同观测技术具有一定的优势:不需要风场水平均匀的假设、探测精度更高等。但其对观测环境的要求较高:观测路径上不能有遮挡、观测必须协同等。在科研业务应用中,需要根据实际的观测需求合理制定观测方案。      

Seasonal variations of spectra of wind speed and air temperature in the mesoscale frequency range

Seasonal variations of the spectra of wind speed and air temperature in the mesoscale frequency range from 1.3 × 10^-4 to 1.5 × 10^-3 Hz (10 min to 2 h periods) have been studied through observations over land for one year. Spectrographs [time series of isopleths of spectral densities, f · S(f) vs f] of wind speed and air temperature contain occasional peaks that are attributed to short-lived mesoscale atmospheric activity with narrow frequency bands. Significant spectral peaks of wind speed were found in 19% of the total observations in winter, and in 15–16% in the other seasons; for air temperature, they occured in 12% of observations in autumn, and in 16–19% in the other seasons. The peaks most often occurred in the period range from 30 min to 1 h; most had durations less than 24 h. Mesoscale fluctuations of wind speed and air temperature were highly correlated, and in most cases, phase differences were 90–180 ° with air temperature leading wind speed. Significant spectral peaks of wind speed often occurred during northerly seasonal cold winds in winter, and accompanied tropical and/or mid-latitude cyclones in the other seasons. When the peaks occurred, wind speed was usually relatively high and the atmospheric surface layer was unstable.     

从单Doppler速度场反演风矢量场的VAP方法

从单Doppler速度场反演风矢量场的VAP(Velocity Azimuth Processing)方法是在假定相邻方位角的风矢量相等的前提下,从单部Doppler雷达所测得的各个距离圈上的径向速度随方位角分布的廓线推算风向和风速的方法。这个假定可以保证反演所得的风矢量场中仍保留次天气尺度的风场信息。 对VAP方法反演公式的误差分析表明,反演出的风向误差为20—30度,与常规测风的误差相近。风速误差一般为10~0m/s,但在某些特定的情况下可达到与风速相同的量级(10~1m/s)。 用VAP方法反演风矢量场前必须首先消除原始Doppler速度资料中的脉动。它可以通过简单的一维线性平滑实现。 文中给出了一个反演实例,从中可以分析出次天气尺度的切变线和辐合线。常规天气图和UHF雷达的风廓线观测表明,这些次天气尺度系统是存在的。它们与反射率因子分布的配置还表明这些次天气尺度系统是和降水相联系的。     

Spatial and Temporal Features of Synoptic and Mesoscale Variability of the Baltic Sea Level

The spatial and temporal features of synoptic and mesoscale variability of the Baltic Sea level are studied using long-term hourly data. The spectral analysis revealed significant difference in the structure of the sea level spectra between the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland. The maximum variance of the synoptic sea level variability is observed at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia and in the southwestern part of the Baltic Sea, whereas the maximum variance of mesoscale variability is registered at the head of the Gulf of Finland and in the southwestern part of the sea. The minimum variance of synoptic sea level variability was observed in the Gulf of Bothnia in the 1950s–1960s, and the maximum was recorded at the beginning and at the end of the 20th century. The series of interdecadal variability of synoptic sea level fluctuations have a weak negative trend up to ?0.11 cm²/year in Kungsholmfrost. A significant qualitative and quantitative correlation was detected between the interannual variability of variance of mesoscale sea level variations in the Gulf of Finland (Gornyi Institut) and the Gulf of Riga (Parnu) and the interannual variability of the NAO index.     

Observations of the Relation Between Upslope Flows and the Convective Boundary Layer in Steep Terrain

Slope flow mechanisms are crucial for the transport of air pollutants in complex terrain. Previous observations in sloping terrain showed upslope flows filling the entire convective boundary layer (CBL) and reducing air pollution concentrations by venting air pollutants out of the CBL into the free atmosphere. During the Pacific 2001 Air Quality Field Study in the Lower Fraser Valley, British Columbia, Canada, we observed slope flows during weak synoptic winds, clear skies, and strong daytime solar heating. With a Doppler sodar we measured the three wind components at the foot of a slope having an average angle of 19° and a ridge height of 780 m. We operated a scanning lidar system and a tethersonde at a nearby site on the adjacent plain to measure backscatter of particulate matter, temperature, wind speed, wind direction, and specific humidity. Strong daytime upslope flows of up to 6 m s⁻¹ through a depth of up to 500 m occurred in the lower CBL, but with often equally strong and deep return flows in the upper part of the CBL. The mass transport of upslope flow and return flow approximately balanced over a 4-h morning period, suggesting a closed slope-flow circulation within the CBL. These observations showed that air pollutants can remain trapped within a CBL rather than being vented from the CBL into the free atmosphere.     

四川省茂县风能资源初步分析

采用1971~2000年气候整编资料数据,初步分析了茂县的风能资源状况。结果表明:(1)由于特定的地理地形条件所致,其风能资源在四川为最大值地区之一,在横断山地区也为最大值地区之一。虽然年平均风能密度仅为27.44 W/m2(县气象局观测资料计算)。但当地风具有一年四季风速较大、风向稳定、定时起风等特点,其风能应具有较大的开发利用价值。(2)茂县的风有如下特点:一年四季都有风,冬春季最大(12月~次年5月平均风速达4.1m/s),秋季次之(10~11月平均风速达3.6m/s),夏季最小(6~9月平均风速达3.4m/s),以3月最大,平均风速达4.6m/s,以9月最小,平均风速只有3.2m/s。据茂县局3次观测的2分钟的平均风速来看,早上多为静风,在这种情况下多年平均风速仍然达到了3.8m/s,为全省最大。(3)根据茂县本站的风观测资料计算该县属于风能资源较贫乏地区,但该县由于地形复杂,县气象局观测资料不能完全代表该县的特殊风能分布情况,需要在实地调查的基础上,选择风速较大的地区建立风能观测点积累风能实测资料,为该县开发风能资源造福当地人民提供更科学、更具有说服力的数据。      

宁波一次罕见持续重度污染事件的成因分析

2013年12月1—10日宁波市出现历史罕见持续性重度污染事件。基于常规天气观测、浙江省自动气象站、宁波慈溪边界层风廓线雷达和凉帽山岛370 m高塔、宁波市和舟山市污染物监测等资料,应用美国NOAA HYSPLIT4模式进行粒子后向轨迹分析,并将CALMET诊断模式应用到WRF中尺度数值模式输出,对本次污染发展和消散过程宁波市3 km以下气象要素进行精细化诊断分析,计算通风系数。结果表明：（1）合适的环流背景是污染发展和持续的主要原因。气溶胶粒子浓度升高过程中有3次弱冷空气影响,主要表现在800 m以上层次,为粒子的输送提供了好的动力条件,却又不影响边界层风速和稳定性。弱冷空气间歇期风力弱,风向快速变化,利于粒子的循环滞留。（2）污染发展和持续阶段宁波市区3000 m以下持续弱下沉气流,夜间边界层高度低,200 m以下存在明显逆温层,导致气溶胶粒子在低层的堆积和能见度的降低。（3）污染发展和持续阶段夜间通风系数均小于1 m²/s,扩散条件很差,而污染消散阶段通风系数明显增大。没有外源性粒子输入时,通风系数与气溶胶粒子浓度成负相关。     

Inertial oscillations near the coast of Nova Scotia during CASP

Abstract

Analysis of current, temperature and salinity records in the nearshore region of the Scotian Shelf during the Canadian Atlantic Storms Program (CASP), reveals that the inertial wave field is highly intermittent, with comparable amplitudes in the surface and deep layers. Clockwise current energy in the surface layer is concentrated at a frequency slightly below inertial, consistent with Doppler shifting by the strong mean current and/or straining by the mean flow shear, whereas the spectral peak in deep water is at the local inertial frequency. Clockwise coherence is high (γ² ≥ 0.8) horizontally over the scale of the array (60 km × 120 km) and in the vertical, with upward phase propagation rates of 0.15–0.50 × 10^?12 ms^?1, inversely proportional to the local value of the Brunt Väisälä frequency. Clockwise current energy decreases in the onshore direction and appears to be completely inhibited on the 60‐m isobath.

A case study of the response to the CASP IOP 14 storm indicates that the inertial waves may be generated by a strong wind shift propagating onshore at a speed of 10 ms^?1. On the eastern side of the array (Liscomb line), clockwise current oscillations propagate onshore in the surface layer at a rate (8.1 ± 0.9 m s^?1) comparable with the speed of the atmospheric front, while waves in the pycnocline move offshore at a lower (internal wave) speed (1.8 m s^?1). Furthermore the temperature and salinity fluctuations are in (out) of phase with longshore current in the deep (surface) layer. However, on the western side of the array (Halifax line), the inertial waves are more complex. A sharp steepening of phase lines at the coast indicates that the phase speed of clockwise current oscillations is considerably reduced and the evidence for offshore propagation of internal waves is less clear. The discrepancies between observations on the two lines suggest that the internal wave field is three‐dimensional.

Results of simple mixed‐layer models indicate that the inertial response near the surface is sensitive to the accurate definition of the local wind field, but not to certain model physics, such as the form of the decay term. The observations also show some qualitative similarities with models for two‐dimensional response to a moving front (e.g. Kundu, 1986), but the actual forcing terms are more complicated, based on IOP 14 wind measurements.     

Estimation of the Exchange Coefficient of Heat During Low Wind Convective Conditions

For the first time, the exchange coefficient of heat C_H has been estimated from eddy correlation of velocity and virtual temperature fluctuations using sonic anemometer measurements made at low wind speeds over the monsoon land atJodhpur (26°18' N, 73°04' E), a semi arid station. It shows strong dependence on wind speed, increasing rapidly with decreasing wind speed, and scales according to a power law C_H = 0.025U₁₀ ^-0.7 (where U₁₀ is the mean wind speed at 10-m height). A similar but more rapid increase in the drag coefficient C_Dhas already been reported in an earlier study. Low winds (<4 m s^-1) are associated with both near neutral and strong unstable situations. It is noted that C_H increases with increasing instability. The present observations best describe a low wind convective regime as revealed in the scaling behaviour of drag, sensible heat flux and the non-dimensional temperature gradient. Neutral drag and heat cofficients,corrected using Monin–Obukhov (M–O) theory, show a more uniform behaviour at low wind speeds in convective conditions, when compared with the observed coefficients discussed in a coming paper.At low wind convective conditions, M-O theory is unable to capture the observed linear dependence of drag on wind speed, unlike during forced convections. The non-dimensional shear inferred from the present data shows noticeable deviations from Businger's formulation, a forced convection similarity. Heat flux is insensitive to drag associated with weak winds superposed on true free convection. With heat flux as the primary variable, definition of new velocity scales leads to a new drag parameterization scheme at low wind speeds during convective conditionsdiscussed in a coming paper.     

Wind forcing due to synoptic storm activity over the North Pacific Ocean

Abstract

Six‐hourly surface wind analyses over the North Pacific Ocean covering the 10‐year period 1969–78 are used to describe synoptic storm activity in terms of parameters that are directly related to the atmospheric forcing of the ocean. The cube of the atmospheric friction velocity, u³ _* and the curl of the surface wind stress, curl τ, are used because of their relationship to turbulent vertical mixing and Ekman pumping in the ocean, respectively. In an attempt to isolate synoptic disturbances from mean fields, the time series of surface wind components at each individual grid point are partitioned into “high‐pass” (periods shorter than 10 days) and “low‐pass” (periods longer than 10 days) components by means of conventional filtering procedures. The two quantities u³ _* and curl τ are then calculated from (a) the high‐pass filtered wind components only, (b) a combination of the filtered wind components that include the interaction between the high‐ and low‐pass fields, and (c) the unfiltered wind components. These quantities describe the atmospheric forcing of the ocean that is attributable to (a) synoptic storm activity by itself, (b) synoptic storm activity in the presence of the low‐pass (mean) flow, and (c) the total spectrum of wind forcing, respectively.

Maps of the long‐term (10‐year) monthly mean u³ _* calculated from (a) and (b) are coherent across the mid‐latitude North Pacific and appear to coincide with the normal seasonal evolution of synoptic storm activity in that region. In mid‐latitudes, the values of u³ _* calculated from (a) and (b) are 27 and 83%, respectively, of the value of u³ _* itself. Thus, a major fraction of the production of turbulent energy available for mixing in the upper layers of the ocean comes from synoptic disturbances with a period shorter than 10 days. Maps of the long‐term monthly mean wind stress curl are quite different in that the mean wind stress curl calculated from (a) is essentially negligible. However, the mean curl calculated from (b) closely resembles the pattern of total curl (c), but with a magnitude of only 41% of (c). Thus, synoptic disturbances with a period shorter than 10 days are also responsible for a significant fraction of the Ekman pumping of the ocean.

Future studies with these data will attempt to determine whether a relationship exists between synoptic storm activity, as measured by the parameters developed in this study, and large‐scale sea‐surface temperature anomalies.     

Characteristics of nocturnal low-level jets over Ulsan airport

We analyzed wind profiler data collected over Ulsan airport during the period from 2008 to 2009 to examine the characteristics of low level jets (LLJs). The Ulsan airport is located within the narrow valley with north-south axis. The frequency analysis results indicates that the nearly 19% of the total nocturnal periods have the presence of jets and LLJ occurrence rate is high in winter (32%) and low in summer (10%). The mode in the wind speed histogram is 4?C6 m s^?1. A majority of jet occurs below 100 m (about 77.8 m) above ground. The predominant wind direction of jet is northerly. In order to examine the favorable conditions for LLJ formation of Ulsan airport, we investigated temperature difference between valley and plain at the surface and synoptic wind direction and speed at 850 hPa. Our results show that air temperature in the valley is lower than over the plain during the nighttime, indicating the existence of thermal forcing for along-valley wind. Under a significant temperature difference along the valley, westerly wind speed at 850 hPa is slightly weaker on LLJs event night than no event night, indicating weaker north-south large-scale pressure gradient on LLJ event night. The magnitude of northerly wind at 850 hPa is much stronger on event night than no event night, implying higher downward transfer of northerly wind on event night. Our findings suggest that jet formation over Ulsan airport is related to the strong northerly wind at 850 hPa in the presence of thermal forcing due to temperature contrast between valley and plain.     

A Note on the Drag of the Sea Surface at Hurricane Winds

Based on the solution of the turbulent kinetic energy balance equation for the airflow in the regime of limited saturation by suspended sea-spray droplets, some experimental evidence, and simple arguments, a resistance law of the sea surface at hurricane winds is derived. It predicts the reduction of the drag coefficient for the wind speed exceeding hurricane values of 30–40 m s ^-1 in agreement with field data.     

2012年春季宜春地区降水期间高空风的频谱分析

利用地面和梯度塔的风连续观测数据进行的频谱分析已经开展很多,而受资料限制,高空风的频谱分析仍较欠缺。本文使用风廓线雷达获取的长时间序列连续测风数据,运用傅里叶变换的方法,计算了风的脉动谱密度。脉动谱能够反映不同频率的风速涨落对风动能的贡献。使用2012年4月江西宜春前汛期期间的高空风连续数据,结合地面降水资料进行了1 000～3 000 m高度区间的频谱分析,发现地处前汛期雨带上的宜春地区降水存在着两种不同时间周期的天气系统影响,脉动谱的分布表现出时间周期为5～7 d和2～3 d的峰值区。分别对两种不同时间周期的天气系统频谱进行了分析,并与平稳天气时的频谱进行比较。5～7 d周期峰区的脉动谱密度数值为2～3 d的4～5倍,脉动谱峰区在2 000～3 000 m高度上较强,峰值强度向下迅速降低;2～3 d周期的脉动谱峰区在低层比较明显,峰值强度较弱。风的脉动谱分布与地面降水的时间周期较为吻合。     

Changes in Wind Speed and Extremes in Beijing during 1960--2008 Based on Homogenized Observations

Daily observations of wind speed at 12 stations in the Greater Beijing Area during 1960–2008 were homogenized using the Multiple Analysis of Series for Homogenization method. The linear trends in the regional mean annual and seasonal (winter, spring, summer and autumn) wind speed series were-0.26,-0.39,-0.30,-0.12 and-0.22 m s-1 (10 yr)-1 , respectively. Winter showed the greatest magnitude in declining wind speed, followed by spring, autumn and summer. The annual and seasonal frequencies of wind speed extremes (days) also decreased, more prominently for winter than for the other seasons. The declining trends in wind speed and extremes were formed mainly by some rapid declines during the 1970s and 1980s. The maximum declining trend in wind speed occurred at Chaoyang (CY), a station within the central business district (CBD) of Beijing with the highest level of urbanization. The declining trends were in general smaller in magnitude away from the city center, except for the winter case in which the maximum declining trend shifted northeastward to rural Miyun (MY). The influence of urbanization on the annual wind speed was estimated to be about-0.05 m s-1 (10 yr)-1 during 1960–2008, accounting for around one fifth of the regional mean declining trend. The annual and seasonal geostrophic wind speeds around Beijing, based on daily mean sea level pressure (MSLP) from the ERA-40 reanalysis dataset, also exhibited decreasing trends, coincident with the results from site observations. A comparative analysis of the MSLP fields between 1966–1975 and 1992–2001 suggested that the influences of both the winter and summer monsoons on Beijing were weaker in the more recent of the two decades. It is suggested that the bulk of wind in Beijing is influenced considerably by urbanization, while changes in strong winds or wind speed extremes are prone to large-scale climate change in the region.     

Simulation of coastal winds along the central west coast of India using the MM5 mesoscale model

A high-resolution mesoscale numerical model (MM5) has been used to study the coastal atmospheric circulation of the central west coast of India, and Goa in particular. The model is employed with three nested domains. The innermost domain of 3 km mesh covers Goa and the surrounding region. Simulations have been carried out for three different seasons—northeast (NE) monsoon, transition period and southwest (SW) monsoon with appropriate physics options to understand the coastal wind system. The simulated wind speed and direction match well with the observations. The model winds show the presence of a sea breeze during the NE monsoon season and transition period, and its absence during the SW monsoon season. In the winter period, the synoptic flow is northeasterly (offshore) and it weakens the sea breeze (onshore flow) resulting in less diurnal variation, while during the transition period, the synoptic flow is onshore and it intensifies the sea breeze. During the northeast monsoon at an altitude of above 750 m, the wind direction reverses, and this is the upper return current, indicating the vertical extent of the sea breeze. A well-developed land sea breeze circulation occurs during the transition period, with vertical extension of 300 and 1,100 m, respectively.     

Mesoscale modeling of katabatic winds over Greenland and comparisons with AWS and aircraft data

Summary Simulations of the katabatic wind system over the Greenland ice sheet for the two months April and May 1997 were performed using the Norwegian Limited Area Model (NORLAM) with a horizontal resolution of 25 km. The model results are intercompared and validated against observational data from automatic weather stations (AWS), global atmospheric analyses and instrumented aircraft observations of individual cases during that period. The NORLAM is able to simulate the synoptic developments and daily cycle of the katabatic wind system realistically. For most of the cases covered by aircraft observations, the model results agree very well with the measured developments and structures of the katabatic wind system in the lowest 400 m. Despite NORLAM’s general ability of reproducing the four-dimensional structure of the katabatic wind, problems occur in cases, when the synoptic background is not well captured by the analyses used as initial and boundary conditions for the model runs or where NORLAM fails to correctly predict the synoptic development. The katabatic wind intensity in the stable boundary layer is underestimated by the model in cases when the simulated synoptic forcing is too weak. An additional problem becomes obvious in cases when the model simulates clouds in contrast to the observations or when the simulated clouds are too thick compared to the observed cloud cover. In these cases, the excessive cloud amount prevents development of the katabatic wind in the model. Received September 22, 2000/Revised March 16, 2001     

Subtidal response of the Scotian shelf bottom pressure field to meteorological forcing

Abstract

Data collected during the Canadian Atlantic Storms Program (CASP) show subtidal variations in subsurface pressure (SSP) to be highly coherent throughout the Scotian Shelf region, and well correlated to fluctuations in the alongshelf component of wind stress (τ^y). Analysis using a frequency‐dependent multiple regression model verified that τ^y is the primary source of local forcing to the SSP field, although non‐locally generated variations in SSP are also important. The two components of local wind stress and a non‐local SSP term combine to explain over 90% of SSP variance on the Scotian Shelf.

Statistical results describing the response to τ^y change dramatically depending upon the inclusion of non‐local forcing. In a model including both types of forcing, the SSP response to local forcing behaves like the solution to a dynamical model forced by time‐dependent wind stress with sea‐level prescribed to zero at the eastern cross‐shelf boundary. Local τ^y forcing becomes more effective to the west and onshore, whereas the phase suggests propagation to the west. The importance of τ^y is reduced at higher frequencies. Describing SSP with a statistical model containing local forcing alone may lead to an incorrect interpretation of SSP dynamics, particularly in the synoptic band where the wind variance is greatest.

Energy originating from a non‐local source is most obvious at ω > 0.5 cpd and at locations on the eastern half of the shelf, but plays an important role at all sites and at all frequencies. These variations propagate to the west at speeds of 6.5 (ω < 0.2 cpd), 25–33 (0.2 cpd < ω < 0.5 cpd), and 12–17m s^?1 (ω > 0.5 cpd). The exponential decay scales at all frequencies are ～900 km in the direction of phase propagation. The non‐local response is consistent with theoretical estimates of first‐ and second‐mode shelf waves for this region and represents the most direct evidence of shelf wave activity on the Scotian Shelf to date.