裂谷盆地构造-热演化模拟中几个问题的讨论

裂谷盆地的构造-热演化模拟是在岩石圈尺度计算裂谷盆地形成演化过程中的热历史和沉降史.拉张模型实现了构造和热的完美结合,在描述裂谷盆地沉降和热流演化方面取得了很大的成功.本文使用二维运动学模型,通过有限元方法,在拉格朗日坐标系下进行拉张背景下的构造热演化模拟,探讨了拉张模型中初始地壳、岩石圈厚度、软流圈对流、模型上边界对构造热演化的影响,以及载水和载沉积物两种情况下盆地侧翼抬升的差异.     

Rifting process and thermal evolution of the continental margin of Eastern Canada determined from subsidence curves

The subsidence history of the Nova Scotia and Labrador shelves, determined from deep exploratory well data, indicates that these regions underwent extension during rifting in the Early Jurassic and Late Cretaceous, respectively, and have since subsided passively due to conductive cooling of the lithosphere. The timing of the extension process is consistent with the ages of oldest sea floor adjacent to these margins. Extension parameters determined from the subsidence history of the Nova Scotian margin indicate both crustal and subcrustal material extended by approximately the same amount. For Labrador, the extension parameters indicate that the mantle lithosphere was extended considerably more than the crust. The magnitudes of extension on both margins are in good agreement with observed crustal thickness determined from seismic refraction data. Profiles depicting the sedimentary stratigraphies and depth to basement were constructed across each margin. The temperature distribution within the sediments was calculated from the extension parameters using a two-dimensional model with sediment units of varying thickness, radioactive heat production, and conductivity. The calculated temperature distribution across the margins is in good agreement with bottom hole temperatures measured in deep exploratory wells, and with surface heat flow measurements where they are available. Similar plots of temperature paleotemperature within the sediments suggest that thermal conditions have been favorable for hydrocarbon generation in some of the older strata.     

Effects of finite rifting times on the development of sedimentary basins

Most thermo-mechanical models for the development of sedimentary basins have assumed that the rifting responsible for the formation of the basin occurred instantaneously and have examined the post-rift development of the basin. This assumption greatly simplifies the mathematical treatment, but is not in accord with what is found in nature, where 10-to 50-m.y. rifting events commonly accompany the formation of sedimentary basins and continental margins. The effects of a finite rifting time on the development of sedimentary basins are examined using an analytic technique which allows an arbitrary rifting history in both time and space and which considers the effects of both vertical and horizontal heat transfer. This technique allows the thermal structure of the lithosphere to be calculated throughout the rifting event and thus permits the subsidence history and surface heat flow of the developing basin to be traced.The effect of a finite-duration extension event is that heat is lost during rifting increasing the syn-rift subsidence at the expense of the post-rift. Lateral heat flow, which was not included in previous studies of the effect of finite rifting times, has a significant effect on the subsidence history, distribution of sediments and thermal history. In particular, the post-rift subsidence is decreased by more than 25% for a 20-m.y. rifting event and by more than 10–15% for a rifting event as short as 10 m.y. This will significantly decrease the subsidence rates in the post-rift stage and implies that inferences concerning the structure, development and thermal history of the basin derived from using “β-curves” to interpret backstripped subsidence can be greatly in error.Variations in syn-rift sediment accumulation and lithospheric thermal structure at the end of rifting resulting from different rifting histories can interact with other factors, such as the flexural response of the lithosphere to sediment loading, to affect the final width of the basin, the total amount of sediments that accumulate and the basin stratigraphy.     

Sedimentary basin development in the Archaean

The time history and magnitude of the subsidence in a sedimentary basin depends on the extent to which the lithosphere is thinned by stretching and on its original thickness. Hence the history and stratigraphic thickness of early Precambrian sedimentary basins, preserved as greenstone belts, should provide estimates of lithospheric thickness during the first half of the earth's history. Only the thickness of shallow-water sediments deposited without faulting is of relevance, and the best available estimates are compatible with all lithospheric thicknesses which have been suggested. The same is true of the estimates of the duration of the subsidence. Nonetheless radiometric dating can probably now provide estimates of the duration of the subsidence which are sufficiently accurate to constrain the models of the earth's thermal history if carried out for this purpose.     

Tectonic modelling in the Bjørnøya West Basin of the Western Barents Sea1

The Bjøirnøya West Basin lies between latitudes 73° and 74°, longitudes 16°E and 18°E, contains at least 8 km of sediments deposited from the Late Jurassic, and is of considerable interest for hydrocarbon exploration. The Cenozoic extensional tectonics in the basin can be clearly seen from seismic data with normal faulting and from subsidence curves with rapid subsidence. The extension occurred during the Late Palaeocene with active extension lasting about 6 million years (m.y.) followed by thermal cooling. The tectonic subsidence within the study area shows a three-phase development: phase 1, synrift (58–52 Ma (million years before the present day)), is characterized by rapid subsidence; phase 2, postrift (52–5 Ma), by slow subsidence with occasional uplift; and phase 3 (5–0 Ma), by rapid subsidence. An adaptive finite-element model, with consideration of the radiogenic heat production in the lithosphere, has been used to model the subsidence and heat flow. The modelling of subsidence shows the β-factor distribution varying from 1.9 to 3.5 with an average of 2.4 for the uniform lithospheric extension. The heat-flow modelling predicts a rapid increase of heat flow during the Early Palaeocene. The maximum heat flow at about 52 Ma, which could be as much as 3.0 hfu (10^?6 cal/cm²/s), was followed by a decrease in heat flow. A plate-weakening model has been proposed to explain the rapid subsidence for the last 5 m.y. by flexure of the elastic lithosphere which is weakened by a decrease in elastic thickness caused by an increase of the temperature gradient in the lithosphere. The plate-weakening model predicts a heat-flow increase at 5 Ma of up to 2.0 hfu. Our study, using quantitative modelling of the tectonic subsidence, provides a partial (if not a full) understanding of the tectonic development and thermal evolution of the Bjønøya West Basin.     

Why the Sacramento Delta area differs from other parts of the great valley: Numerical modeling of thermal structure and thermal subsidence of forearc basins

Data on present-day heat flow, subsidence history, and paleotemperature for the Sacramento Delta region, California, have been employed to constrain a numerical model of tectonic subsidence and thermal evolution of forearc basins. The model assumes an oceanic basement with an initial thermal profile dependent on its age subjected to refrigeration caused by a subducting slab. Subsidence in the Sacramento Delta region appears to be close to that expected for a forearc basin underlain by normal oceanic lithosphere of age 150 Ma, demonstrating that effects from both the initial thermal profile and the subduction process are necessary and sufficient. Subsidence at the eastern and northern borders of the Sacramento Valley is considerably less, approximating subsidence expected from the dynamics of the subduction zone alone. These results, together with other geophysical data, show that Sacramento Delta lithosphere, being thinner and having undergone deeper subsidence, must differ from lithosphere of the transitional type under other parts of the Sacramento Valley. Thermal modeling allows evaluation of the rheological properties of the lithosphere. Strength diagrams based on our thermal model show that, even under relatively slow deformation (10⁻¹⁷ s⁻¹), the upper part of the delta crystalline crust (down to 20–22 km) can fail in brittle fashion, which is in agreement with deeper earthquake occurrence. Hypocentral depths of earthquakes under the Sacramento Delta region extend to nearly 20 km, whereas, in the Coast Ranges to the west, depths are typically less than 12–15 km. The greater width of the seismogenic zone in this area raises the possibility that, for fault segments of comparable length, earthquakes of somewhat greater magnitude might occur than in the Coast Ranges to the west. The text was submitted by the authors in English.     

Subsidence and flexure along the Pratt-Welker seamount chain

Chemical and age data led Turner, Jarrard and Forbes to conclude that the origin of the Pratt-Welker seamount chain in the Gulf of Alaska cannot be attributed to a single cause. They argued instead that some seamounts in the chain formed over a hotspot, away from a ridge, while others formed near a ridge. They also noted that the latter group of guyots were generally deeper than the former and they used this observation to predict the origin of the unsampled seamounts in the chain. A second geophysical test of the origin hypothesis is to examine the degree of isostatic compensation of the guyots; seamounts formed near a ridge should be in a state of local isostatic compensation, while seamounts formed away from a ridge should be regionally compensated. This test has been carried out using GEOS 3 and SEASAT altimeter data. The effective flexural rigidity of the lithosphere below all seamounts is found to be less than about 10²⁰ Nm, such that the isostatic state is nearly local, rather than regional. This may be a consequence of all the seamounts having formed on an initially weak lithosphere, of stress relaxation subsequant to their formation away from the ridge, or both. If the seamounts from Giacomini to Durgin formed away from the ridge then these results point to an effective flexural rigidity at the time of loading of about 3 × 10²¹ Nm and to a stress-relaxation time of about 10⁶ years. These values are for an ocean lithosphere that was about 20–22 my old when loaded. Corresponding values for 60 my old lithosphere in the southern Pacific were previously found to be about 3 × 10²² Nm and 5 × 10⁶ years. This comparison suggests that both the initial elastic response and the rate of stress relaxation are functions of the age of the lithosphere. The subsidence of guyots is due to numerous factors including thermal contraction of the seafloor, sediment loading, the flexure of the lithosphere prior to its subduction along the Aleutian Trench and, in view of the above short stress relaxation time, stress relaxation. A principal uncertainty in evaluating the subsidence that has occurred subsequent to the seamount having been eroded to sealevel is the erosion time interval. The comparison of the predicted subsidence with observed depths points to an erosion time constant of the order of 5 my and which is a function of seamount size. The conclusions from the flexure and subsidence analysis as to where the various seamounts formed are in agreement with those of Turner et al. Giacomini, Quinn, Surveyor, Pratt and Durgin formed away from a ridge and are consistent with a fixed hotspot and uniform spreading rate model. The geophysical information for Denson, Davidson and Hodgkins is consistent with the hypothesis that these guyots formed near or on a ridge. The case for Welker seamount is ambiguous, and this guyot may have formed over a second hotspot, located at an intermediate distance between the first and the ridge. The geophysical evidence for Bowie seamount is also ambiguous. Possibly it has a similar source to Welker, suggesting that there may actually be three different origin mechanisms that led to the chain.     

Thermal cooling of the oceanic lithosphere: new constraints from geoid height data

Up to now, tests of thermal models of the oceanic lithosphere as it cools and moves away from the ridge crest have been based mainly on topography and heat flow data. However, large areas of the ocean floor deviate from the normal subsidence due to thermal contraction and heat flow data are not very sensitive to the form of the model.

Cooling of the lithosphere causes a short-wavelength step in the geoid across fracture zones that can also be used to constrain thermal models. We have analyzed geoid data at fracture zones from the SEASAT altimeter measurements in the entire Pacific Ocean and redetermined parameters of the cooling models. We find that the data reveal two distinct regimes of cooling; one for seafloor ages in the range 0–30 Ma, the other beyond 30 Ma; this does not appear to be correlated with particular fracture zones but rather it is representative of the whole area studied, i.e., the entire south Pacific and northeast Pacific Ocean. These two trends may be interpreted in terms of two different (asymptotic) thermal thicknesses of the plate model. The smaller thermal thickness ( 65 km) found for ages <30 Ma—compared to 90 km in the age range 30–50 Ma—calls for some kind of thermal perturbation in the vicinity of the ridge crest.

From the results obtained in this study, we conclude that the half-space cooling model is unable to explain the data, that beyond 30 Ma, a simple plate model gives a satisfactory fit to the data but in the younger plate portion (ages < 30 Ma) the cooling history of the oceanic lithosphere is much more complex than predicted by the usual cooling models. Furthermore, the depth-age relationship obtained from the geoid-derived thermal parameters departs significantly beyond 30 Ma from the widely used Parsons and Sclater's depth-age curve, predicting a lesser subsidence.     

Subsidence, extension and thermal history of the West African margin in Senegal

The subsidence of the Atlantic margin in Senegal clearly shows two rapid stages related to the formation of (1) the Central Atlantic during the early Jurassic (around 200 Ma), and (2) the Equatorial Atlantic during the Cretaceous (100 Ma). A simple model of extension is used to interpret the subsidence history and to derive the thermal evolution of this basin. The present-day gravity, bathymetry, bottom hole temperatures (BHT) in oil exploration boreholes and heat flow density are used to control the validity of the model. Two cross sections from the outcropping basement to oceanic crust are used, one in Casamance and the other one at the south to latitude of Dakar. The model can fully explain the first-order subsidence history as well as the present-day observations, and therefore can provide valuable information about the thermal evolution of sediments and about the structure of the continental crust along the margin. Comparisons with the opposite margin in North America (Blake Plateau and Carolina trough) indicate a rather different evolution (the North American margin did not undergo the second stage of rifting) and a different crustal structure (crustal thinning is less important on the African margin).     

Sediment loading at the southern Chilean trench and its tectonic implications

Non erosive margins are characterized by heavily sedimented trenches which obscure the morphological expression of the outer rise; a forebulge formed by the bending of the subducting oceanic lithosphere seaward of the trench. Depending on the flexural rigidity (D) of the oceanic lithosphere and the thickness of the trench sedimentary fill, sediment loading can affect the lithospheric downward deflection in the vicinity of the trench and hence the amount of sediment subducted. We used seismic and bathymetric data acquired off south central Chile, from which representative flexural rigidities are estimated and the downward deflection of the oceanic Nazca plate is studied. By flexural modeling we found that efficient sediment subduction preferentially occurs in weak oceanic lithosphere (low D), whereas wide accretionary prisms are usually formed in rigid oceanic lithosphere (high D). In addition, well developed forebulges in strong oceanic plates behaves as barrier to seaward transportation of turbidites, whereas the absence of a forebulge in weak oceanic plates facilitates seaward turbidite transportation for distances >200 km.     

基于变参数板块模型的大洋岩石圈参数反演与岩石圈伸展成盆模拟

本文利用热导率、热容、热膨胀系数等参数随温度变化的经验表达式,在板块模型的基础上用隐式有限差分方法解非线性热传导方程,并利用北太平洋和北大西洋海底年龄与水深数据反演了大洋岩石圈厚度与底界温度等参数,结果表明大洋岩石圈的厚度在105 km左右,岩石圈底界温度在1450℃左右,这与Stein等用全球大量数据反演的结果一致.将变参数模型用到岩石圈拉张成盆的模拟中,结果表明当考虑岩石圈热参数随温度变化之后,预测的地表热沉降要大于常参数均匀伸展模型的预测量.由此我们指出：McKenzie的均匀伸展模型预测的初始沉降偏大而热沉降偏小,可能与该模型没有考虑热参数随深度(即温度)变化有关.     

Fundamentals of ridge crest topography

A linear relationship between the sea floor depth and the square root of age has been found for ocean lithosphere spreading from mid-ocean ridges. The asymptotic solution of depth as a function of age for the thermally contracting lithosphere predicts a linear dependence of depth ontwith a proportionality involving the initial lithosphere temperature, the thermal diffusivity, and the isostatic expansion coefficient averaged to include any temperature dependent phase changes. Empirical depth observations, when plotted as a function of the square root of age, bear out this prediction well, but there is a variation in the gradient,ht, along the ridge on a fine scale (up to 20% over 200 km). This implies a fundamental variation of the contraction parameter over the same scale, most probably of compositional origin. Details of a more complete cooling model near the ridge crest, including a crust of different thermal parameters than those of the mantle, predict a crestal height about 0.2 km below that of the simplified model. Individual profiles from the southeast Pacific show no such crestal deviation, and it is concluded that by quickly cooling the new crust, hydrothermal circulation may remove any effects of the crust which would be seen in the topography of a lithosphere cooled totally by conduction. The straightness of depth versust for older ocean data (to 80 m.y.) precludes any basal isothermal boundary shallower than 100 km.     

南海北部洋陆转换带盆地发育动力学机制

南海北部洋陆转换带是近年来基础科学研究和深水油气勘探热点地区.本文在详细研究南海北部洋陆转换带新采集的二维长电缆深反射地震剖面资料的基础上,采用挠曲悬臂梁模型和挠曲回剥模型算法,分别计算了上地壳、地壳和整个岩石圈拉伸系数,实验结果表明,研究区洋陆转换带盆地岩石圈发生了与深度相关的拉伸变形过程,并且随深度增加,拉伸量逐渐变大,该结果解释了南海北部盆地裂后阶段发生的加速沉降现象.同时,本文结合南海北部洋陆转换带盆地发育过程的特点,将洋陆转换带盆地演化划分为陆内裂陷阶段、裂后热沉降阶段和裂后加速沉降阶段.本研究将有助于认识南海北部深水盆地特征,并对大陆边缘动力学研究和陆缘盆地深水区油气勘探有重要意义.     

南海海盆三维重力约束反演莫霍面深度及其特征

利用南海海盆及周边最新的重力,经过海底地形、沉积层的重力效应改正,并采用岩石圈减薄模型的温度场公式,校正了从张裂边缘到扩张海盆的热扰动重力效应.通过研究区的地震剖面和少量声呐数据得到的莫霍面深度点作为约束,采用基于"起伏界面初始模型"的深度修正量反演迭代公式,反演、计算了研究区的莫霍面深度及地壳厚度.结果表明,海盆区莫霍面深度在8~14 km之间,地壳厚度在3~9 km之间;东部海盆和西南海盆残留扩张中心沿NNE向展布向西南延伸至112°E,莫霍面深度超过12 km,地壳厚度在6 km以上,而西北海盆没有明显的增厚扩张中心;在西南海盆北缘的中沙地块南侧,存在一个近EW向地壳减薄带,地壳厚度在9~10 km;莫霍面深度14 km的等深线和地壳厚度9 km的等值线可指示洋陆边界位置.     

Anomalous subsidence on the rifted volcanic margin of Pakistan: No influence from Deccan plume

The role of hotter than ambient plume mantle in the formation of a rifted volcanic margin in the northern Arabian Sea is investigated using subsidence analysis of a drill site located on the seismically defined Somnath volcanic ridge. The ridge has experienced > 4 km of subsidence since 65 Ma and lies within oceanic lithosphere. We estimate crustal thickness to be 9.5–11.5 km. Curiously < 400 m of the thermal subsidence occurred prior to 37 Ma, when subsidence rates would normally be at a maximum. We reject the hypothesis that this was caused by increasing plume dynamic support after continental break-up because the size of the thermal anomalies required are unrealistic (> 600 °C), especially considering the rapid northward drift of India relative to the Deccan-Réunion hotspot. We suggest that this reflects very slow lithospheric growth, possibly caused by vigorous asthenospheric convection lasting > 28 m.y., and induced by the steep continent–ocean boundary. Post-rift slow subsidence is also recognized on volcanic margins in the NE Atlantic and SE Newfoundland and cannot be used as a unique indicator of plume mantle involvement in continental break-up.     

柴达木盆地深部物理参数的反演

通过研究地球对表面载荷的响应来反演确定地球深部的物理参数.采用分为4层的地球模型,各层的介质被看作Maxwell粘弹性体.将柴达木盆地沉降发育过程中积累的沉积物作为随时间变化的载荷加于地表,通过拟合柴达木盆地沉降中心附近地区的沉降过程来研究该地区地壳的厚度及剪切模量、岩石层地幔的粘性及软流层的粘性等物理参数.计算结果表明,该地区地壳的剪切模量不会超过全球平均值的60％,岩石层地幔的粘性系数不大于1.5×10²³Pa·s.通过研究对该地区的深部物理参数得出了新的认识.     

沉积速率对渤中坳陷大地热流的影响

盆地内快速剧烈的构造作用可导致热异常,在利用盆地热历史揭示深部动力学过程时,需消除热异常的影响. 本文根据瞬时热传导原理,校正了渤海湾盆地渤中坳陷低热异常,准确地约束了盆地深部动力学状态. 对渤中坳陷内3口典型井进行热流校正结果表明,渤中坳陷古近纪以来快速沉积导致其现今（~60.9 mW·m^-2）未达到热平衡（低热异常）. 校正后的热流值平均约为67.4 mW·m^-2,比现今高5~10 mW·m^-2. 利用校正后的热流值计算得到的渤中坳陷的“热”岩石圈的平均厚度约为70 km,比修正前的厚度（82~100 km）减少了13~28 km.     

西北太平洋岩石圈有效弹性厚度及其构造意义

本文引入滑动窗口导纳技术(MWAT),计算西北太平洋岩石圈有效弹性厚度(Te).首先,基于SIO V15.1海底地形模型,模拟研究了MWAT法计算Te的精度,表明当Te5km时,误差在±1km以内,当Te≥5km时,相对误差在10%以内.分别采用GEBCO、SIO V15.1和BAT_VGG海底地形模型,构建了西北太平洋Te,通过对获得的洋壳密度参数和实测导纳与模型导纳之差的均方根进行分析,结果表明,BAT_VGG模型更适用于Te计算.西北太平洋Te均值为13.2km,标准差为6.9km,以板块冷却模型为参考,主要分布在150℃~450℃等温线深度范围内.白垩纪和侏罗纪时期岩石圈Te分布在150℃~300℃等温线深度范围内,且未随海山加载时岩石圈年龄增大而增大,说明海山加载时岩石圈年龄不是影响其强度的唯一因素.南太平洋超级海隆活动,以及研究区域广泛存在的断裂带构造,都曾对本区域岩石圈演化产生过重要影响,可能是本地区岩石圈Te较小的构造原因.     

Consequences of foreland basin development on thinned continental lithosphere: Application to the Aquitaine basin (SW France)

We present an analysis of the consequences of foreland basin development on thinned continental lithosphere, inherited from pre-orogenic phases of extension. Bathymetry at the transition from pre-orogenic extensional basin to foreland basin and compaction of pre-orogenic sediments contribute to the accommodation space for foreland basin sediments and thrust loads. In addition, the extension-induced transient thermal state of the lithosphere, results in ongoing thermal subsidence, and a flexural rigidity which changes through time. Quantitative modelling of the phase of extension and the foreland basin stage of the Aquitaine basin (southern France) shows that the inherited transient thermal state of the lithosphere contributes significantly to (1) the total foreland basin depth and width, (2) the post-compressional subsidence history, and (3) the cratonward onlap pattern. Accounting for the thermo-mechanical effects of pre-orogenic extension significantly reduces the estimates of both the flexural rigidity (30–43% for the Aquitaine basin) and the required topographic or thrust load (40% for the Aquitaine basin) at foreland basins. Emplacement of thrust loads below sea level, as expected in a pre-orogenic extensional basin setting, further reduces the required topographic load. This sheds light on the wide range of flexural rigidity values reported for continental lithosphere from foreland basin modelling studies, and explains, in many instances, the inferred ‘hidden load’ or subsurface load in flexural modelling studies at foreland basins. The present study has shown that pre-orogenic extension phases significantly affect the record of vertical motion and the stratigraphy of the Aquitaine basin and is probably important for foreland basin evolution in general.     

松辽盆地地壳精细结构研究

基于东北地区已有的宽频带流动台阵远震数据,利用波场延拓和分解的H-β网格搜索法,对松辽盆地的沉积层及地壳结构进行了深入分析。结果显示:松辽盆地的沉积层厚度为0.2—2.5 km,整体呈现中央坳陷区厚、边缘薄且西南地区最薄的分布特征;研究区地壳较薄,厚度介于24—34 km之间,其横向变化特征与沉积层厚度分布具有一定的对应性。依据沉积层和地壳的厚度计算了地壳伸展系数,其平均值接近于以往接收函数研究估测的岩石圈伸展因子。因此,本文推测松辽盆地在伸展构造过程中,其地壳和岩石圈的减薄以纯剪切模式为主。此外,松辽盆地具有较高的地壳平均波速比v_P/v_S,暗示盆地下方岩石圈地幔的减薄过程中可能存在岩浆的底侵作用。