TENDING CULTURAL LANDSCAPES AND FOOD CITIZENSHIP IN TORONTO'S COMMUNITY GARDENS*

ABSTRACT. Scattered throughout the city of Toronto are more than no community gardens, sites of place‐based politics connected to the community food‐security movement. The gardens, spaces where passions for plants and food are shared, reflect the city's shifting cultural landscape and represent an everyday activity that is imbued with multiple meanings. Toronto's community food‐security movement uses gardens as one strategy to regenerate the local food system and provide access to healthy, affordable food. Three garden case studies expand on the complexities of “food citizenship,” illustrating the importance of that concept to notions of food security. The gardens reveal the role gardeners play in transforming urban spaces, the complex network of organizations working cooperatively and in partnership to implement these projects, and the way in which social and cultural pluralism are shaping the urban landscape.     

A basic assessment of residential plant diversity and its ecosystem services and disservices in Beijing,China

About 52% of the world's population now lives in urban areas, and 41% of urban land in developed countries is used for residential areas. The amount and quality of residential green space, an important element in urban residential infrastructure, is closely correlated to city dwellers' quality of life. The quality of green spaces is not only closely correlated to the ecosystem services they provide, but also to their disservices. In order to (i) examine how plant diversity and plant traits vary in different residential areas, (ii) determine the main socio-economic factors driving plant trait variations across different residential areas, and (iii) provide an overview on selected ecosystem services and disservices related to plant diversity, we investigated the flora and socio-economic properties of 83 residential areas in Beijing, China. We found a total of 369 plant species belonging to 99 families and 150 genera. With respect to plant traits, there were 90 annual species, 174 alien species, 169 pollen allergenic species, and 133 species with edible or pharmaceutical value. The number of perennial, alien, ornamental and edible plant species was largest in residential areas completed in the 1990s. The number of allergenic species was highest in residential areas completed prior to 1980. The Simpson, Shannon and Pielou indices for trees and shrubs were highest in areas completed in the 1990s, while those same indices for herbs were highest in residential areas completed prior to 1980. General Linear Model analyses revealed that richness increased with increasing housing price across all groups of species. Principal Component Analysis indicated that housing price and floor-area ratio are the variables that positively correlate with species richness for all groups of species.     

Urban Community Garden Agrodiversity and Cultural Identity in Philadelphia,Pennsylvania, U.S.

Considerable research has examined the social, cultural, economic, and community benefits of urban gardening. Few studies, however, have empirically assessed factors that influence urban community garden agrodiversity or its relationship to these dimensions of gardening. We conducted an interdisciplinary study of agrodiversity and cultural identity, based certain markers of identity, including how people see themselves with respect to race, ethnicity, or place of origin, in community gardens in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. We conducted fifty‐six semistructured interviews with gardeners with different cultural identities in eight community gardens on their motivations for urban community gardening during 2014. We conducted plant inventories of the corresponding garden plots and found 104 cultivated edible and ornamental species and 28 varieties representing 34 families. We find that although gardens with culturally diverse gardeners did not have higher species richness, the cultural identity of the gardeners influenced species selection and reason for gardening. Further, the structure, design and species composition of garden plots reflected the identities of garden members. These finding have implications for the recent institutionalization of urban agriculture into city land policies in Philadelphia and other cities in North America.     

Urbanization and Sustainable Resource Use: The Case of Garden Watering in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona

Urban sprawl is eroding the traditionally compact, diverse, and mixed Southern European cities. Besides the rise in land and energy consumption, the expansion of low density urban forms also affects water, a critical resource in the region. This study examines garden watering in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona in order to illustrate the importance of outdoor water use in the urbanization process, and, following the insights provided by urban political ecology, to highlight the differences in garden types and water spending according to power relations derived from income levels. Results indicate that, generally, higher income households prefer and can afford more water-consuming Atlantic gardens whereas lower income households have to resort to more climate-adapted species. These differences produce in turn different urban natures based on who can and who cannot afford water costs.     

Forgotten Roots of the Green City: Subsistence Gardening in Columbus,Ohio, 1900-1940

Subsistence gardens were a significant land use in the Columbus, Ohio metropolitan area from 1900 to 1940. Their existence, however, was materially erased from the city and discursively erased from its history after that period. This paper investigates the processes of that erasure, particularly in the American Addition neighborhood of Columbus, concentrating on the articulation of an urban normative that made such land uses appear contrary to "modern" urban development. At the same time, the existence of such practices and landscapes in the city was explained away by a crisis narrative of the garden that helped to support the idea that such practices did not produce "normal" urban spaces. The simultaneous material and discursive colonization of subsistence gardens as "relief" measures during the Great Depression left these landscapes and areas dependent on the City of Columbus, under whose control they were transformed into more "appropriate" cityscapes.     

DIFFERENTIATING MULTIPLE MEANINGS OF GARDEN AND COMMUNITY

Community gardens are widely recognized as an effective grassroots response to urban disinvestment and decay. There has been remarkably little attention paid, however, to the differences among community gardens as physical and social spaces. This paper suggests that variations among gardens reflect and reproduce differing interpretations of the meaning of both community and garden in the city. A comparative discussion of three community gardens in Minneapolis, Minnesota, highlights the concept that at the intersection of notions of community and garden are the issues of enclosure, inclusion and exclusion. Decisions about whether and how to enclose community gardens shape the role that community gardens play in urban neighborhoods. [Key words: community gardens, neighborhood revitalization, urban activism.]     

长江流域城市的生态环境问题与跨世纪城市持续发展战略

综合分析评价了长江流域城市的生态环境态热与问题,城市水环境依恶化,特别是城市内河道,湖泊水质多污染严重。城市大气污染仍呈加重趋向,一些特大城市汽车尾气污染上升,城市酸雨依然严重。城市生态问题沉重,绿地不足,热岛加重,地面沉降,水土流失等。     

Food gardens as important elements of urban agriculture: Spatio-developmental trends and future prospects for urban gardening in Czechia

The main research goals of the article are to explain the historical context of urban food gardens in Czechia, to describe the current spatial pattern of allotment gardens, and to introduce and analyse recent trends in urban gardening. The main method for achieving the first goal was a literature study. For the second goal, geographical mapping and analysis of data relating to the spatial distribution of allotment gardens were used. For the third goal, mapping together with analysis of semi-structured interviews carried out in community gardens in Prague were used. The analysis showed a strong tradition of urban agriculture and urban food gardening activities in Czechia. Both allotment gardens and newly emerged community gardens were concentrated mainly in the biggest cities and in areas with a rich industrial and mining tradition. This finding supports the significance of gardening as an important element of urban agriculture. However, uncertainty regarding land tenure and long-term sustainability were among the greatest obstacles for the future of allotment and community gardens. The authors’ main recommendations are that urban agriculture should be included as primary land use in sustainable planning and there should be broader community involvement in planning and decision-making processes.     

吉林省城乡居民膳食水足迹研究

居民日常的膳食消费与水资源的保护和节约息息相关。根据吉林省1999—2011年城乡居民膳食消费量,量化城乡居民膳食水足迹,并分析其特征。13年来吉林省城乡居民膳食水足迹波动不大,但城乡之间存在差异。城镇居民膳食水足迹中肉类所占比重最大,而农村居民膳食水足迹中粮食占绝对比重。城镇居民膳食水足迹多样性指数高于农村居民,均呈上升趋势,尤其是农村居民膳食消费的种类增长较快,居民膳食消费的种类日益丰富。吉林省城乡居民膳食水足迹虽然存在差异,但差距不大,不公平现象不明显。     

南京市居民网络消费的影响因素及空间特征

在互联网络和信息技术的影响下,网上购物、团购等基于电子商务平台的网络消费方式得到极大发展,网络消费逐渐成为城市居民消费选择的重要方式,网络消费市场得到了较快的发展。同时,由于居民社会阶层的差别及相应居住空间的分异,导致网络消费呈现出不同的空间特征,并且对实体空间产生不同程度的影响。通过对南京居民网络消费情况的问卷调查,分析个人社会经济属性、住房状况、交通方式以及移动网络使用等体现居民社会阶层状况的要素对居民网络消费选择的影响,进而分析居民网络消费的空间分布特征,研究城市不同空间的网络消费构成和网络消费商品类型特征,在此基础上分析不同空间网络消费对交通出行和实体商业空间结构的影响程度。     

特大城市群生态空间及其生态承载状态的时空分异

快速城镇化导致中国城市群地区生态空间被大量挤占,生态承载压力加剧,已成为制约城市群健康发展的重要因素。本文界定并分析了京津冀、长三角、粤港澳大湾区、成渝、长江中游5个特大城市群三生空间结构分布特征,解析了1990—2020年生态空间时空分异及其变化的影响因素,进一步通过水资源供给、水质调节、空气质量调节、休闲游憩探讨了近30年生态空间综合承载状态及其时空分异特征。研究结果表明：① 不同形成发育阶段的城市群呈现差异性的三生空间面积结构比、以多中心组合为主的生活空间拓展演变模式,以及屏障式、紧密、离散、全包围式的生态空间结构。② 1990—2020年城市群生活空间面积持续大幅度增加而生产空间呈现相反趋势,除粤港澳大湾区以外,生态空间均表现出增加态势尤其近10年增势明显。三生空间面积结构及其时空变化特征,说明特大城市群生产、生态空间的主要功能从供给转向调节和文化,并反映了中国从快速城镇化到新型可持续城镇化的转变。③ 5个城市群分别有78.6%、73.1%、54.5%、56.3%和25.8%市域呈现严重超载的综合生态承载状态,其中水资源供给、水质调节是制约城市群生态承载水平的要因,未来需要重视城市群生态空间保留量及其合理布局以减缓生态承载压力。本文可为城市群绿色可持续发展、三生空间结构优化和配置提供科学依据。     

An Experience Inspired by the Evolution of Community Gardens in New York City

In many highly dense urban environments, the urgent needs of residents for increasing green space, improving the quality of the community environment and reconstructing the relationships among residents have given birth to the new space type of community gardens. However, China still lacks this relevant experience. In contrast, New York City’s community gardens had a relatively early start, and they now have rich experience in space construction, operation and maintenance. Given their level of experience, they can be used as references for the development of community gardens in China. This paper adopts a bibliometric research method, identifies 201 periodical literature sources published between 2000 and 2020 from the core library of the Web of Science as the object of study, and finally assesses the research hotspot for transferring from macro-research to space-type construction method, social impact, and so on, through CiteSpace software analysis. By virtue of the research process analysis and the results of field surveys and interviews, this paper probes the development status of space construction and social organization construction of the community gardens in New York City, and summarizes that area’s effective experience of development. Based on the current development situation of China’s community gardens, it is proposed that the development of community gardens should be directed by ensuring the land for development, giving full play to social benefits, and mobilizing social organizations, so as to effectively realize urban space construction and social governance.     

南京市居民网络消费的影响因素及空间特征简

在互联网络和信息技术的影响下,网上购物、团购等基于电子商务平台的网络消费方式得到极大发展,网络消费逐渐成为城市居民消费选择的重要方式,网络消费市场得到了较快的发展。同时,由于居民社会阶层的差别及相应居住空间的分异,导致网络消费呈现出不同的空间特征,并且对实体空间产生不同程度的影响。通过对南京居民网络消费情况的问卷调查,分析个人社会经济属性、住房状况、交通方式以及移动网络使用等体现居民社会阶层状况的要素对居民网络消费选择的影响,进而分析居民网络消费的空间分布特征,研究城市不同空间的网络消费构成和网络消费商品类型特征,在此基础上分析不同空间网络消费对交通出行和实体商业空间结构的影响程度。     

全球化背景下基于宗教地理的西方城市空间研究进展

全球化语境主导的城市研究中,多样和异质的宗教既是文化流动的重要构成,也是表征移民身份和理解其日常行为实践的重要维度。论文回顾了近30 a来宗教地理视角下对于西方城市空间研究的主要成果,从宗教空间和宗教信仰群体的行为实践2个方面梳理宗教嵌入城市空间的主要方式、过程及其对城市空间的影响,总结出了以下4个方面的主要研究内容：① 多种宗教场所在城市中不断涌现,其空间特征发生多样化变迁;② 功能多样的宗教公共服务设施在公共空间中的作用日趋重要;③ 宗教信仰群体的居住社区显现出明显的空间特征;④宗教信仰群体通过具体的行为表征身份和认同。此外,多元文化共存的语境下的宗教更被视为引发空间争议的新来源,成为分析城市社会关系的重要依据。学者们认为在多元文化主义的西方社会,异质宗教的本地嵌入过程使原本“隐匿的”宗教场所逐渐浮现成为城市中“可见的”空间。这种异质宗教在城市中的视觉表征不仅改变了原有的城市空间秩序,也对社会关系提出新的挑战,成为了引发广泛争议的新来源。然而, 国内人文地理学研究目前对上述话题鲜有涉及,期望本文所提供的西方研究进展对社会文化视角下理解中国城市全球化进程及其中的多元文化治理有所启示。     

基于女性主义地理学的消费空间性别关系建构——以西安“世纪金花”购物中心为例

近年来,女性主义地理学的研究内容转向身体、身份认同和象征空间等微观地理,消费空间的性别研究成为关注热点。文章基于女性主义视角,借助对典型消费空间的实证调查,考察空间性别化特征以及性别因素决定下的空间之权力隐喻关系,总结了人—地互动模式中的性别建构特征。研究发现,消费空间为女性提供了参与城市公共空间的场所,见证了女性空间权的觉醒与实践,但女性仍受男性规训与控制;现代女性在消费空间中的行为延续了传统的角色定位,公共空间参与度并未显著改变她们的性别角色和在家务上的性别化分工;消费空间再现和建构的性别关系、性别地位是一种典型的隐形歧视,女性处于实际上的不平等地位。因此,空间和性别不可分割且互为构成,两性在消费空间中的表现实质上是性别权力关系的投射,折射出这一地理空间中两性的宰控关系。     

Traditional horticultural knowledge change in a rural population of the Patagonian steppe

We investigated traditional horticultural knowledge related to plant species cultivated in homegardens in an arid rural population of North-western Patagonia, Argentina. By means of semi-structured interviews and field visits to the cultivated areas we analyzed floristic composition and structure of: vegetable-gardens, greenhouses and gardens. We evaluated species richness, cover and biogeographical origin in each cultivated area and analyzed the influence of socio-cultural factors, such as age and gender, on informants’ cultivation practice. A total of 124 species was found: 75 species in vegetable-gardens, 63 in greenhouses and 68 in gardens. In all cultivated areas, most plant species (91%) were exotic and mainly used for edible purposes. Plant richness in homegardens increased with informants’ age and both men and women play a relevant role in the maintenance of cultivated areas. Traditional knowledge in this community has been suffering an erosion process, which is in part influenced by the intervention of extension agents. However, their presence creates the possibility of integrating new and ancestral practices, favoring development of knowledge of a hybrid, syncretic nature. Alongside these changes, Pilcaniyeu inhabitants still maintain traditional homegardens cultivation, through which we can appreciate the intricate relationship between people and their physical, historical, cultural and spiritual contexts.     

Urban Open Spaces in Historical Perspective: A Transdisciplinary Typology and Analysis

Urban open space provides a unique conduit for the sociospatial study of urban history. We propose seven categories to help scholars historically situate and analyze urban open spaces: food production areas, parks and gardens, recreational space, plazas, streets, transport facilities, and incidental space. We use these categories, and the contrast between grey and green space, to compare examples from archaeological, historical, and recent times across a broad geographical range. Top-down and bottom-up actions dialectically intersect in the establishment, use, and reproduction of urban open space, and many open spaces prove to be particularly flexible in serving the general population. These findings can inform comparative urban analysis, and they help contextualize current debates concerning the socioeconomic, political, and urban ecological functions of open and public spaces.     

GARDENS AND DWELLING: PEOPLE IN VERNACULAR GARDENS*

ABSTRACT. Investigations of dooryard gardens, kitchen gardens, home gardens, and houselot gardens fall unequally into one of three groupings. The first are those that treat the plants in the gardens as biological entities and define a space considered a culturally controlled biological community or habitat. The second are those that consider plants cultural traits and the space defined by their positions a setting for household activities. The third conceives of plants as design elements within a garden or a landscape that frames a house or provides a setting for formal human performances. Recent decades have witnessed a broadening focus in the study of gardens, from spatial characteristics and biological content to social and cultural concerns such as reciprocity networks, contested spaces, and the concept of “dwelling.”     

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT: MORE THAN EVER,THE BUSINESS OF AMERICA

Community-produced spaces such as community gardens are attracting widespread scholarly interest for the potential of not only food production, but also for social, environmental, and educational benefits. Yet community gardens have also been scrutinized as sites of governmentality that produce neoliberal subjects. In this article, six case studies are analyzed as representative of three ways to organize and manage gardens—grassroots, externally-organized, and active nonprofit management. I use performativity theory to examine how definitions and enactments of community can be used to include, exclude, or bridge difference. The analysis highlights some of the specific moments in garden organizing and management that influence participation or resistance to community-oriented urban food production.     

Urban Perennials: How Diversification has Created a Sustainable Community Garden Movement in The United States

Our research seeks to understand how the contemporary community garden movement in the United States differs from its predecessors and whether its new foundation increases the political and financial sustainability of today's gardens. To this end, this article reviews historical and contemporary literature, and surveys participants in three distinctive community gardens, to answer several related research questions. First, what is the current state of the US community garden movement, and how have its historical roots shaped its response to current policy concerns? Second, which populations comprise today's community gardeners, and what motivates them to participate? After considering the findings from our three study gardens, and from a review of secondary and “gray” literature, we conclude by positing that a greater diversity of gardeners and gardening motivations, accompanied by changing leading views on urban land uses, will lead to such urban gardens remaining a more lasting feature of city neighborhood landscapes.