The carbonate compaction law: a new tool

Carbonate content, compaction, and porosity are evaluated from a large number of samples using micritic marl-limestone alternations from Germany, France, and Italy. Compaction is measured directly by utilizing both deformed, originally cylindrical bioturbation tubes and steinkerns of ammonites. Additionally, a method is developed to indirectly evaluate the total compaction of the rock matrix by using early, selectively cemented burrows and fossils. Plots representing measurements of compaction versus carbonate content display distinctly non-linear relationships which show increasing compaction with decreasing carbonate content. These relationships are found to clearly correspond with the carbonate compaction law. The compaction law is introduced as a theoretical derivation for sediments and rocks which calculates the carbonate and non-carbonate content, compaction, and porosity. It is based on the assumption that the non-carbonate fraction standardized to the primary sediment-volume remains constant during carbonate diagenesis. The compaction law is used to calculate the most commonly found sediment/rock transformations (e.g. mechanical compaction, cementation, and chemical compaction) and to simulate the diagenetic processes of given examples. Decompaction formulas are developed to evaluate the porosity and carbonate content of the primary sediment. An example of calculating decompaction and determining the original composition of the sediment is given utilizing carbonates spanning the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary at Gubbio (Italy).     

利用石香肠恢复能干层原始厚度的等面积法

在恢复岩层古环境、计算岩石流变学参数时常需要岩层的原始厚度.利用在褶皱地区伴生的肿缩石香肠可恢复岩层的原始厚度.经过沉积、压实作用以后,岩层压实率趋近最终压实率,岩石中矿物颗粒骨架基本上保持不变,则岩层体积保持不变.褶皱一般是受到垂直岩层或平行岩层作用力而形成的,肿缩石香肠在褶皱轴向(b轴)上变形通常很微小,根据体积不变的假设,则石香肠体在褶皱横向剖面(ac面)上变形前后的面积应是相等的,以此来恢复岩层的原始厚度.为了求解肿缩石香肠横向剖面面积,对其边界进行拟合、积分,发现它相当于一些梯形面积之和.运用此方法进行模拟实验并对铁山地区进行计算,并把计算结果与肿缩石香肠的最大厚度比较,发现它更能反映真实情况.     

古地貌恢复方法及应用——以济阳坳陷桩西地区沙二段为例

济阳坳陷桩西地区沙二段埋深较大,应用残留厚度进行古地貌恢复存在较多问题。介绍了用压实法进行古地貌恢复的原理及方法。该方法分为视厚度校正、压实方程建立、单井压实厚度恢复、原始厚度图和古地貌图编制4个步骤。根据沙二段顶面构造图计算的真厚度校正系数最小可达0.83。压实结果表明压实率一般大于30%。结合视厚度校正、压实恢复结果和古水深,编制了沙二段基准面上升期和下降期的古地貌图,桩西地区沙二段古地貌中间高、东西两侧低。滩坝主要分布在孤北古隆起东西两侧,滩坝的发育明显受古隆起的控制。     

Multiscale characterization of pyritized plant tissues in blueschist facies metamorphic rocks

Pyritized plant tissues with well-preserved morphology were studied in rocks from Vanoise (western Alps, France) that experienced high-pressure, low-temperature metamorphic conditions in the blueschist facies during the Alpine orogeny. Organic and inorganic phases composing these fossils were characterized down to the nanometer scale by Raman microspectroscopy, scanning transmission X-ray microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The graphitic but disordered organic matter composing these fossils is chemically and structurally homogeneous and mostly contains aromatic functional groups. Its original chemistry remains undefined likely because it was significantly transformed by diagenetic processes and/or thermal degradation during metamorphism. Various mineral phases are closely associated with this organic matter, including sulphides such as pyrite and pyrrhotite, carbonates such as ankerite and calcite, and iron oxides. A tentative time sequence of formation of these diverse mineral phases relative to organic matter decay is proposed. The absence of traces of organic matter sulphurization, the pervasive pyritization of the vascular tissues and the presence of ankerite suggest that the depositional/diagenetic environment of these metasediments was likely rich in reactive iron. Fe-sulphides and ankerite likely precipitated early and might have promoted the preservation of the fossilized biological soft tissues by providing mechanical resistance to compaction during diagenesis and subsequent metamorphism. In contrast, iron oxides which form rims of 100-nm in thickness at the interface between organic matter and Fe-sulphides may result from metamorphic processes. This study illustrates that it may be possible in some instances to deconvolve metamorphic from diagenetic imprints and opens new avenues to better constrain processes that may allow the preservation of organic fossils during diagenesis and metamorphism.     

甘肃宝积山盆地上三叠统舌叶属化石形态模型建立初探

本文试用数码相机,图形处理和数据分析软件相结合的方法,对采集于甘肃省白银市宝积山盆地上三叠统南营儿组舌叶属化石叶片进行数字化,获得其叶形的主要基本参数数据,使用数据分析软件建立舌叶属叶片上、下边缘函数曲线模型,利用模型对舌叶属化石叶片特征进行讨论,进而对保存不完整的叶片原形进行恢复,结果表明重建的化石形态与原叶片宏观特征吻合程度很好,建立叶片数学模型方法恢复不完整保存舌叶整体形态具有可行性。     

Applications of molecular fossils in lacustrine stratigraphy

Biomarkers, or the so-called molecular fossils, are used tentatively in the Eogene lacustrine stratigraphy study in the Jiyang Sub-basin. Notwithstanding the fact that unidentified microfossils or amorphism and acritarchae are widely distributed in lacustrine source rocks, molecular fossils are useful to identify the sources. It is helpful to reconstruct the palaeo-enviroment, palaeo-ecosystem and compartmentalize the stratigraphic sequence by using molecular fossils with which the existence and types of microbes including bacteria, archaea and certain algae can be identified.     

Physical compaction of vertic palaeosols: implications for burial diagenesis and palaeo-precipitation estimates

Burial compaction is one of several major obstacles to estimating palaeoprecipitation from depth to pedogenic carbonate in favourably preserved palaeosols. Palaeosols must be decompacted and the preburial depth to the pedogenic carbonate obtained. Vertic palaeosols may be particularly good candidates for palaeoprecipitation estimates, because of their increased likelihood of preserving clastic dykes, one of the best features for estimating burial compaction. Compaction estimates from clastic dykes and literature-based depth of burial estimates suggest vertic palaeosols undergo significantly less burial compaction than may be commonly assumed. Late Carboniferous vertic palaeosols, buried to 2·5–3·0 km, compacted to 93% of their original thickness. In contrast, clastic dykes in a nonpedogenic shale directly underlying one of the Late Carboniferous palaeosols records compaction to 70% of original thickness. Similarly obtained burial compaction and burial depth estimates for Early Carboniferous, Ordovician, and Proterozoic vertic palaeosols were used to test a burial compaction curve and equation specific to vertic palaeosols. Results suggest this ‘vertic-calibrated’curve and equation can be used to estimate burial compaction for vertic palaeosols lacking clastic dykes, but additional testing is needed. Naturally high bulk densities may have limited the compactibility of vertic palaeosols. Likewise, high initial bulk density and an abundance of swelling clays may have severely limited the transmissivity of some vertic palaeosols as they passed from pedogenic to burial environments. Upon burial these vertic palaeosols may have behaved as closed systems, which has implications for understanding their diagenetic modification. Additional efforts to understand burial compaction of vertic palaeosols also promises to improve our understanding of aquifer/aquiclude and hydrocarbon reservoir/seal relationships in sedimentary basins containing intercalated palaeosols.     

压实作用下广西典型红树林区沉积速率及海平面上升对红树林迁移效应的制衡

气候变化造成的海平面上升是迫使红树林向陆迁移的主要驱动力, 而其自身通过捕沙促淤不同程度的减缓了海平面上升速率的影响。基于广西典型红树林区8根短柱的210Pb测年和含水率分析, 以考虑/未考虑沉积物压实作用为研究情景, 通过对比研究红树林区潮滩地表高程抬升速率和相对海平面上升速率的大小关系, 揭示当前海平面上升对广西红树林向陆/向海迁移的驱动机制。研究发现:未考虑压实作用下的沉积速率约是考虑压实作用下沉积速率的1.00~1.34倍(平均1.12倍), 压实作用明显;压实沉积速率介于0.16~0.78 cm/a, 其底层压实沉积速率与潮滩地表高程抬升速率相等。压实作用下, 英罗湾和丹兜海红树林区的地表高程抬升速率小于相对海平面上升速率;与未考虑压实作用得到的结论相悖。由于广西红树林海岸大都建有防波堤, 限制了红树林向陆的迁移;表明英罗湾和丹兜海的红树林正面临海平面上升的威胁。压实作用校正与否对地表高程抬升速率与相对海平面上升速率相当的区域尤为重要。     

Carbonate concretions—explained

Carbonate concretions are common features of sedimentary rocks of all geological ages. They are most obvious in sandstones and mudstones as ovoid bodies of rock that protrude from natural outcrops: clearly harder or better cemented than their host rocks. Many people are excited by finding fossils in the centre of mudstone‐hosted concretions ( Fig. 1 ) but spend little time wondering why the fossils are so well preserved. While the study of concretions has benefitted from the use of advanced analytical equipment, simple observations in the field can also help to answer many questions. For example, in cliff sections, original sedimentary beds and sedimentary structures can be traced right through concretions ( Fig. 2 ): so it can be deduced that the concretion clearly formed after these depositional structures were laid down. In this article we explain how and where concretions form and discuss the evidence, ranging from outcrop data to sophisticated laboratory analyses, which can be used to determine their origins. The roles of microbes, decaying carcasses, compaction and groundwaters are highlighted. Concretions not only preserve fossils but can also subdivide oil, gas and water reservoirs into separate compartments.

Figure 1 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint An early diagenetic carbonate concretion split in half to reveal an ammonite retaining its original aragonite shell, from the Maastrichtian of Antarctica. Image courtesy of Alistair Crame (British Antarctic Survey, NERC). Lens cap is 6 cm.     

Fabric development in a weathering profile at a basement–cover interface,the sub-Cambrian peneplain,Israel: Implications for decollement tectonics

The present study examines a fossil saprock–saprolite–laterite-profile beneath the sub-Cambrian peneplain in the Pan-African Roded Granite, Israel, with regard to structure and magnetic fabrics (anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility, AMS), and image analysis of compaction. The deformed granite shows two pre-weathering foliations, S_1m (magmatic) and S_2g (gneissic). Pre-Early Cambrian weathering comprised weathering-brecciation in saprock and saprolite, and chemical weathering with clay-formation in saprolite and laterite. During subsequent Phanerozoic burial the laterite was vertically compacted to 73% of its original thickness. In the laterite, compaction produced an unconformity-parallel cleavage (S_3d) with increasing intensity towards the unconformity. Bulk susceptibility (κ_bulk) and anisotropy (P′) decrease from the unweathered granite into the saprolite, as a result of progressive magnetite breakdown, martitization and weathering-brecciation. In the laterite, an enrichment of haematite and relic Fe–Mg–mica lead to increased κ_bulk. Here, magnetic fabrics trace the compaction fabrics. The subhorizontal, compactional clay–/mica-fabric S_3d defines a structurally weak and impermeable layer. The mechanical weakness of a clay-enriched weathering horizon with an unconformity-parallel, planar shape-preferred orientation, combined with the potentially overpressured state due to the sealing character of such a zone provides a viable explanation for the abundant localization of decollement horizons at or beneath basement-cover interfaces.     

一种恢复岩层初始厚度的新方法——鱼嘴构造研究

根据发育程度,将鱼嘴构造划分成A、B、C、D、E五种基本类型,研究了鱼嘴构造的形态特点以及鱼嘴的周缘长度与岩层初始厚度之间的关系,利用物理模拟的手段,模拟出B、C两种类型的鱼嘴构造,相应地得出了利用这两类鱼嘴构造恢复岩层初始厚度的系数k₁、k₂,并成功地运用于实际岩石能干层初始厚度恢复.     

Estimation of the variation in apparent displacement along normal fault traces refracted by differential compaction

Initially planar fault surfaces can be refracted by differential compaction, sudden changes in the displacement gradient taking place at the contact of different lithologies. As a result, the original displacement pattern, e.g. a cone-type in an idealized case, can be changed into a zigzag-type, especially when the initial dip angle of the fault and differential compaction are high. Compared with pre- and syn-faulting compaction, post-faulting compaction is more likely to change the initial displacement pattern along normal faults which were active near the sediment surface. Based upon the assumption that compaction is homogeneous vertical strain, the original fault geometry and displacement pattern can be estimated by means of decompaction and related geometric calculations.     

遗迹化石及其对古环境分析的意义

近二十多年来遗迹化石学在国际上进展显著,日益受到地质学家的重视,出版了许多有价值的学术论文和专著,包括一些重要的原理和研究成果。遗迹化石不仅是作为古生物学的一个部分,研究地球上生物活动和进化的证据;遗迹化石也是生物成因的沉积构造,可以用来分析岩相形成条件和解释沉积环境,生物扰动既可以对沉积物进行改造和破坏,也可以对沉积物进行建造,应当是沉积学研究当中不可忽视的一个部分。本文着重介绍遗迹化石对古代沉积环境分析的重要意义。     

From bone to pixel—fossil restoration and reconstruction with digital techniques

Fossils represent the only physical evidence for the existence of extinct life, and hold a vast potential to reconstruct organisms and ecosystems vanished a long time ago. Yet fossils are not as complete as they might appear in museum exhibits, documentaries or Hollywood blockbusters. Millions of years of fossilization have left their marks on the fossils, which might no longer resemble the condition of the organism when it was alive. A key challenge in palaeontology is therefore to restore and reconstruct the morphology of fossils. Luckily, novel digital visualization and reconstruction techniques offer powerful tools to bring extinct organisms back to life in unprecedented detail.     

Sedimentology of the Middle Marker (3.4 Ga), Onverwacht Group,Transvaal, South Africa

The Middle Marker is a thin (3–6 m) sedimentary unit at the base of the Hooggenoeg Formation in the 3.4 Ga old Onverwacht Group, Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa. The original sediments consisted largely of current-deposited volcaniclastic detritus now represented by green to buff-colored silicified volcaniclastic rock and fine-grained gray chert. Black chert, possibly formed by the silicification of a non-volcaniclastic precursor, makes up a significant part of the unit. The Middle Marker is underlain and overlain by mafic and commonly pillowed volcanic flowrock. Although the original sediment has been replaced by and/or recrystallized to a microquartz, chlorite, sericite, carbonate and iron oxide mosaic under lower greenschist-grade metamorphism, sedimentary textures and structures are remarkably well preserved. Textural pseudomorphs indicate the primary volcaniclastic sediment consisted of a mixture of crystal, vitric and lithic debris. Middle Marker sediments were deposited as a prograding, cone-flanking volcaniclastic sedimentary platform in a relatively-shallow and locally current/wave-influenced subaqueous sedimentary environment. Available paleocurrent data indicate a largely bimodal, orthogonal distribution pattern which is quite similar to both ancient and modern shallow marine/shelf systems. Diagnostic evidence for tidal activity is lacking. As felsic volcanic activity waned, an extensive airfall blanket of fine-grained volcanic ash and dust was deposited in a low-energy subaqueous environment. The sedimentary cycle was terminated with a renewal of submarine mafic volcanism. Middle Marker volcaniclastic sediments accumulated in an anorogenic basin removed or isolated from the influence of continental igneous and metamorphic terranes. Although compositionally dominated by a volcanic source, Middle Marker sediments owe their final texture and sedimentary structures to subaqueous sedimentary rather than volcanogenic processes.     

早寒武世宽川铺生物群中Punctatus卵裂胚胎化石的发现及其意义

陕南早寒武世宽川铺生物群中保存了大量磷酸盐化动物胚胎化石和小壳化石.在已报道的这些胚胎化石中, 主要是囊胚期之后不同发育阶段的胚胎化石标本, 缺少卵裂期胚胎化石材料.报道了从宽川铺生物群中新发现的多枚从4分细胞、64分细胞、128分细胞、512分细胞到千分级细胞的卵裂期胚胎化石, 以及大量囊胚期、原肠胚期和不同孵化幼体阶段的化石标本, 他们共同构成了从单个细胞(Olivooides)经卵裂到囊胚、原肠胚, 再到孵化的锥形幼体(Punctatus)的完整胚胎发育序列.从卵裂子细胞数量的变化、形态的变化、排列方式及囊胚腔形态等特征, 基本上可与贵州瓮安生物群(地质时代为伊迪卡拉纪Ediacaran)中卵裂细胞化石对比.同时也可与一些现生的低等动物卵裂胚胎对比.新化石材料的发现, 不仅填补了宽川铺生物群中卵裂期胚胎化石的空白, 而且对揭示Olivooides胚胎的卵裂过程和特点, 探讨其亲缘关系, 以及后生动物的早期演化都具有十分重要的科学意义.      

Flow pattern within a Permian submarine slump recorded by oblique folds and deformed fossils, Ulladulla, south-eastern Australia

The flow pattern within a slump in Permian marine rocks of the southern Sydney Basin, Australia, is recorded by folds and deformed fossils. Abundant brachiopod and bryzoan fossils in the slumped rocks are relatively undeformed, but fossil crinoid stems have been deformed by relative rotation of individual ossicles. Measurement of the strain indicates that the deformation of the crinoids is consistent with flexural flow folding within the slump. Previous models assume that curved slump fold axes remain parallel to the enveloping bedding surface of a slump sheet. Detailed measurements of the orientation of slump folds in this study found fold axes to be oblique to bedding, which is interpreted as a result of folds plunging downward towards the flanks of the slump or slump lobes. In the present model, fold axes are not generally parallel to the strike of the fold axial surface, and this can explain differences between the orientations of slump fold axes and axial surfaces when these are used as directional indicators of slump movement.     

Pyrite in ammonite-bearing shales from the Jurassic of England and Germany

Pyrite occurs both in normal clays and shales with a benthic fauna (Oxford Clay, England, and Lias ε, Germany) and in highly bituminous shales (Lias ε, Germany). In normal shales it is present in small quantities as early framboids, but more conspicuously as internal moulds of fossils, especially ammonites. The pyrite in these is petrographically varied; several types of internal sediments and chamber linings are described and illustrated by reflected-light and scanning electron microscopy. Most striking are pyrite stalactites, suspended from the roofs of ammonite chambers, which were later filled by calcite or baryte. Pyrite formed in reducing micro-environments, while the sediment generally was not wholly anoxic. Most pyrite pre-dates compaction of sediment, breakage of fossils and solution of shell aragonite. Variable rates and conditions of reduction of sea water sulphate are reflected in δ³⁴S values ranging from ?55 to +44. Stalactites probably started to form when the ammonite chambers were partially gas-filled. In the bituminous Lias ε shales pyrite occurs abundantly as early framboids and micro-nodules. Larger nodules show a variety of forms, some of which post-date compaction of the sediment. Pyrite is not associated with the abundant flattened ammonites. δ³⁴S values in shales are grouped about a mode near ?20. Pyrite formed over a long time-span, and throughout the sediment, not just in protected cavities. Contrasts in pyrite types can be related to differing depositional environments and organic contents of the shales. Pyrite is an important mineral in diagenetic mineral parageneses which can be deduced by studying fossil void-fillings and concretions, and which help define the diagenetic history of a shale.     

海拉尔盆地贝尔凹陷南屯组火山碎屑岩成岩作用的讨论

利用偏光显微镜、扫描电镜、染色法以及X-衍射分析等方法,查明南屯组火山碎屑岩成岩作用模式.研究表明火山碎屑岩成岩作用方式包括：机械压实作用、胶结作用与自生作用、交代作用和溶蚀溶解作用.成岩共生序列为：黏土矿物包壳-泥晶碳酸盐矿物、自生蒙皂石、自生伊利石-长石溶解-自生石英-自生高岭石-绿泥石、白云石-铁方解石-铁白云石.成岩阶段划分为早成岩阶段B期和中成岩阶段A期,并且以中成岩阶段A期为主.     

Sedimentary environments and trace fossils of the Permian Snapper Point Formation,Southern Sydney Basin

The Lower Permian Snapper Point Formation at its type locality in the southern Sydney Basin is interpreted as a regressive sequence of a linear clastic shoreline. Lithologies, sedimentary structures, and palaeocurrent patterns suggest a prograding barrier‐beach environment. Barrier foot, bar nucleus, bar crest, and back‐bar are distinguished. Abundant trace fossils aid the recognition of minor facies. The thickness of sediments deposited in the protected inshore environment may be explained by progradation into rising relative sealevel, but rates of sealevel rise or land subsidence were ultimately exceeded by the rate of sediment supply. Up‐sequence changes in the character of the sedimentation units and biofacies may therefore reflect an evolution from a barrier profile to an open mainland beach.