Wind-driven estuarine turbidity maxima in Mandovi Estuary,central west coast of India

Systematic studies on the suspended particulate matter (SPM) measured on a seasonal cycle in the Mandovi Estuary, Goa indicate that the average concentrations of SPM at the regular station are ∼20mg/l, 5mg/l, 19mg/l and 5mg/l for June–September, October–January, February–April and May, respectively. SPM exhibits low-to-moderate correlation with rainfall indicating that SPM is also influenced by other processes. Transect stations reveal that the SPM at sea-end stations of the estuary are at least two orders of magnitude greater than those at the river-end during the monsoon. Estuarine turbidity maximum (ETM) of nearly similar magnitude occurs at the same location in two periods, interrupted by a period with very low SPM concentrations. The ETM occurring in June–September is associated with low salinities; its formation is attributed to the interactions between strong southwesterly winds (5.1–5.6ms⁻¹) and wind-induced waves and tidal currents and, dominant easterly river flow at the mouth of the estuary. The ETM occurring in February–April is associated with high salinity and is conspicuous. The strong NW and SW winds (3.2–3.7ms⁻¹) and wind-driven waves and currents seem to have acted effectively at the mouth of the estuary in developing turbidity maximum. The impact of sea breeze appears nearly same as that of trade winds and cannot be underestimated in sediment resuspension and deposition     

The dynamics of conservative mixing in estuaries

Mixing plots, in which a dissolved constituent is plotted against salinity or chlorinity, are commonly used to interpret conservative and non-conservative processes in estuarine systems. A bend in the resulting curve is generally interpreted as indicative of the reactive or non-conservative nature of the constituent or the presence of multiple sources or sinks within the estuary. This paper demonstrates analytically that bends in mixing curves may also result from temporal variations in end-member (river or ocean) constituent concentrations even for conservative constituents. A one-dimensional dispersion equation is used to calculate the distribution of salinity and a conservative constituent in a model estuary. Both straight and bent mixing curves are shown resulting simply from changing the variability of the river constituent concentration. For no variability the curve is straight. For variability with a period much less than the flushing time, the average curve for a general data set straight, whereas the curve for a synoptic data set is bent. For variability with a period greater than the flushing time a bent curve results. Since bent mixing curves can occur for conservative properties, the use of these curves for interpretation of estuarine processes must be undertaken with an understanding of the temporal variability of the river and ocean constituents and their relationship to the estuary mixing properties and flushing time.     

Microbial processes in the San Francisco Bay estuarine turbidity maximum

We examined microbial processes and the distribution of particulate materials in the estuarine turbidity maximum (ETM, salinity 2–10 PSS) of northern San Francisco Bay on three cruises during the late spring of 1994 (low flow: April 19, April 28, May 17) and two cruises during the early summer of 1995 (high flow; June 13, July 18). Under low flow conditions, chlorophyll concentrations decreased by a factor of 2–4, bacterial abundance decreased by 20%, and L-leucine incorporation rate decreased by a factor of about 2 over a salinity range of 0–2 PSS, then remained relatively constant at higher salinities. Over this same salinity range under high flow conditions, chlorophyll concentration was c. twofold lower, bacterial abundance was c. threefold higher, and L-leucine incorporation rate was in the same range as during low flow. Under high flow conditions, chlorophyll concentration increased by 20%., bacterial abundance decreased by a factor of 2, and L-leucine incorporation rate decreased by half (June 13) or remained unchanged (July 19) with increasing salinity. Under low flow conditions the concentration of suspended particulate material (SPM), particulate organic carbon (POC), and particulate organic nitrogen (PON) increased 3–10 fold with salinity, to a maximum at intermediate salinities (c. 6 PSS). As a result, the contribution of phytoplankton to POC decreased from a maximum of 32% in fresh water to c. 6% in the ETM. The contribution of bacterial biomass similarly decreased from 5% in fresh water to 0.8% in the ETM. The C:N ratio of particulate material increased from <10 in fresh water to >12 in the ETM. High variability in abundance estimates confounded analysis of patterns in bacterial biomass partitioning between particle-associated and free-living fractions along the salinity gradient. However, the partitioning of L-leucine incorporation shifted dramatically from being predominantly by free-living cells in fresh water to being predominantly by particleassociated populations in the ETM. The metabolic fate of thymidine taken up differed, between particle-associated and free-living bacteria, suggesting some metabolic divergence of these assemblages.     

Reconsidering the physics of the Chesapeake Bay estuarine turbidity maximum

A series of cruises was carried out in the estuarine turbidity maximum (ETM) region of Chesapeake Bay in 1996 to examine physical and biological variability and dynamics. A large flood event in late January shifted the salinity structure of the upper Bay towards that of a salt wedge, but most of the massive sediment load delivered by the Susquehanna River appeared to bypass the ETM zone. In contrast, suspended sediments delivered during a flood event in late October were trapped very efficiently in the ETM. The difference in sediment trapping appeared to be due to increases in particle settling speed from January to October, suggesting that the fate of sediments delivered during large events may depend on the season in which they occur. The ETM roughly tracked the limit of salt (defined as the intersection of the 1 psu isohaline with the bottom) throughout the year, but it was often separated significantly from the limit of salt with the direction of separation unrelated to the phase of the tide. This was due to a lag of ETM sediment resuspension and transport behind rapid meteorologically induced or river flow induced motion of the salt limit. Examination of detailed time series of salt, suspended sediment, and velocity collected near the limit of salt, combined with other indications, led to the conclusion that the convergence of the estuarine circulation at the limit of salt is not the primary mechanism of particle trapping in the Chesapeake Bay ETM. This convergence and its associated salinity structure contribute to strong tidal asymmetries in sediment resuspension and transport that collect and maintain a resuspendable pool of rapidly settling particles near the salt limit. Without tidal resuspension and transport, the ETM would either not exist or be greatly weakened. In spite of this repeated resuspension, sedimentation is the ultimate fate of most terrigenous material delivered to the Chesapeake Bay ETM. Sedimentation rates in the ETM channel are at least an order of magnitude greater than on the adjacent shoals, probably due to focusing mechanisms that are poorly understood.     

Control of estuarine stratification and mixing by wind-induced straining of the estuarine density field

Observations from the York River Estuary, Virginia, demonstrate that the along-channel wind plays a dominant role in governing the estuarine exchange flow and the corresponding increase or decrease in vertical density stratification. Contrary to previous findings that suggest wind stress acts predominantly as a source of energy to mix away estuarine stratification, our results demonstrate that the wind can play a more important role in straining the along-channel estuarine density gradient. Down-estuary winds enhance the tidally-averaged vertical shear, which interacts with the along-channel density gradient to increase vertical stratification. Up-estuary winds tend to reduce, or even reverse the vertical shear, reducing vertical stratification. In two experiments each lasting approximately a month, the estuarine exchange flow was highly correlated with the along-channel component of the wind. The changes in stratification caused by the exchange flow appear to control the amount of vertical mixing as parameterized by the vertical eddy viscosity. The degree of stratification induced by wind straining also appears to play an important role in controlling the effectiveness of wind and tidal mixing.     

A model study of turbidity maxima in the York River estuary,Virginia

A three-dimensional numerical model is used to investigate the mechanisms that contribute to the formation of the turbidity maxima in the York River, Virginia (U.S.). The model reproduces the basic features in both salinity and total suspended sediments (TSS) fields for three different patterns. Both the prominent estuary turbidity maximum (ETM) and the newly discovered secondary turbidity maximum (STM) are simulated when river discharge is relatively low. At higher river inflow, the two turbidity maxima move closer to each other. During very high river discharge event, only the prominent turbidity maximum is simulated. Diagnostic model studies also suggest that bottom resuspension is an important source of TSS in both the ETM and the STM, and confirm the observed association between the turbidity maxima and the stratification patterns in the York River estuary. The ETM is usually located near the head of salt intrusion and the STM is often associated with a transition zone between upriver well mixed and downriver more stratified water columns. Analysis of the model results from the diagnostic studies indicates that the location of the ETM is well associated with the null point of bottom residual flow. Convergent bottom residual flow, as well as tidal asymmetry, is the most important mechanisms that contribute to the formation of the STM. the STM often exists in a region with landward decrease of bottom residual flow and net landward sediment flux due to tidal asymmetry. The channel depth of this region usually decreases sharply upriver. As channel depth decreases, vertical mixing increases and hence the water column is better mixed landward of the STM.     

山溪性强潮河口最大浑浊带形成机制及其模拟

为阐明强潮河口最大浑浊带的形成机制及其运动规律,通过瓯江和椒（灵）江实测资料分析,系统分析了强潮河口最大浑浊带形成的影响因素及其与河口地貌的响应关系。考虑黏性细颗粒泥沙运动特性和盐度的影响,开发了强潮河口最大浑浊带数学模型,对椒（灵）江枯季大潮最大浑浊带运移过程进行了模拟。结果表明:①强潮河口最大浑浊带是潮波变形、咸淡水混合、泥沙再悬浮等复杂因素在一定河口边界和泥沙条件下相互作用的产物,潮波变形和泥沙供给是影响最大浑浊带形成的关键因素。②强潮河口最大浑浊带模拟必须充分考虑潮流、盐淡水混合、泥沙周期性起动、絮凝和沉积密实等因素,所建立的数学模型可用于强潮河口最大浑浊带研究。     

Desorption and coagulation of trace elements during estuarine mixing

Mixing experiments of seawater and the Hudson and Mississippi riverwaters with radiotracer spikes show that Co, Mn, Cs, Cd, Zn and Ba will be desorbed from river suspended particles, while significant fractions of “dissolved” Fe, Sn, Bi, Ce and Hg will be coagulated during estuarine mixing.     

Contribution of estuaries to commercial fisheries in temperate Western Australia and the concept of estuarine dependence

Fisheries catch statistics for temperate Western Australia are considered in conjunction with life cycle data to elucidate the importance of estuaries to the commercial and recreational fisheries in this region. The data are used to discuss whether the term estuarine-dependent is strictly applicable to all species of finfish found in abundance in estuaries. Between 1976 and 1984, 96 species of finfish, 7 species of crustaceans and 12 species of mollusks contributed to the large commercial fishery in estuaries, protected coastal areas and open marine waters of temperate Western Australia. The mean annual weight and monetary value (in 1984 terms) of this fishery was 21,355 t and $A151.3×10⁶. The contribution of the weight (4,340 t) and value ($A3.7×10⁶) of the estuarine-dependent species to the total fishery was 20.3 and 2.4%, respectively. Estuarine-dependent marine species frequently use protected inshore waters in temperate Western Australia, and have to do so when they occur in subtropical regions in Western Australia where there are no permanent estuaries. Even the semi-anadromous Perth herring and some species which are estuarinesensu stricto in south-western Australia complete their life cycle within the marine waters of this latter more northern region. Since virtually none of the commercially important marine species in temperate Western Australia can be considered to be entirely dependent on estuaries, and a similar conclusion is valid for many species of marine teleosts found in abundance in estuaries in temperate waters elsewhere in the world, these marine species would be best regarded as estuarine opportunists rather than estuarine dependents.     

The importance of suppression of turbulence by stratification on the estuarine turbidity maximum

A simple numerical model demonstrates that the reduction in turbulence due to stratification greatly enhances the trapping of suspended sediment that occurs at the estuarine turbidity maximum. In moderately and highly stratified estuaries the turbulent diffusivity decreases markedly between the region upstream of the salinity intrusion, where the turbulence is uninhibited by salt stratification, and the stratified regime within the salinity intrusion, where turbulence is reduced by the inhibitory influence of salt stratification. This reduction in turbulent diffusion results in a reduction in the quantity of sediment that can be carried by the flow, causing sediment to be trapped near the landward limit of the salinity intrusion. This trapping process occurs at the same location as that due to the estuarine convergence, but it appears to be many times more effective at trapping silt-size particles. A model is formulated that is similar to Festa and Hansen's (1978) model of the estuarine turbidity maximum, with the addition of a stratification-dependent eddy diffusivity. For silt-size sediment particles, the model indicates as much as a 20-fold increase in the trapping rate with inclusion of the stratification effect. it is likely that this mechanism is important in many partially mixed and highly stratified estuaries.     

On the mixing processes in estuaries: The fractional freshwater method revisited

A mathematically transparent model for long-term solute dynamics, based on an oscillating reference frame, is applied to the analysis of the mixing process in estuaries. Classical tidally-averaged transport models for estuaries, all derived in some way from the Fractional Freshwater Method of Ketchum (1951) are reinterpreted in this framework. We demonstrate that in these models, the dispersion coefficients obtained from salinity profiles are not always a good representation of the mixing intensity of other dissolved constituents. In contrast, the hypothesis of equal coefficients is always verified in our oscillating coordinate system, which is almost devoid of tidal harmonics. The mathematical representation of the seaward boundary condition is also investigated. In the tidally-averaged Eulerian models, a fixed Dirichlet boundary condition is usually imposed, a condition that corresponds to an immediate, infinite dilution of the dissolved constituent beyond the fixed estuarine mouth. This mathematical representation of the estuarine-coastal zone interface at a fixed location is compared with the case of an oscillating location, which protrudes back and forth into the sea with the tide. Results demonstrate that the mathematical representation of the seaward boundary condition has a significant influence on the resulting mixing curves. We also show how to apply our approach to the prediction of mixing curves in real estuaries.     

Role of metal species in flocculation rate during estuarine mixing

Flocculation can be considered as an effective mechanism in self-purification of metals during estuarine mixing. In the present investigation, flocculation of metals during mixing of Minab River water with the Strait of Hormuz (The Persian Gulf) water is studied for the first time. Flocculation behavior of metals (except for Pb) is governed by dissolved organic carbon. The source of dissolved organic carbon is terrigenous in the estuarine waters of study area. The general pattern of flocculation of studied metals is manganese (180 μg/L) > zinc (88 μg/L)> nickle (73 μg/L)> copper (30 μg/L)> lead (19 μg/L). The results of present study show that metal species are a very important factor in overall flocculation rate. It is found that solids and oxides have the highest and lowest flocculation levels, respectively. Eh-pH diagram indicated that lead is present as lead oxide in Minab River water and the least flocculation rate is attributed to this element. The results also showed that flocculation rate of metal species could be as solids > free ions ≈ hydroxides > oxides. The amount of metal flocculation is about 30.5, 6.6, 25.3, 10.4 and 62.5 ton/y for zinc, Pb, Ni, Cu and Mn, respectively.     

Speciation of some heavy metals in bottom sediments of the Ob and Yenisei estuarine zones

The speciation of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Co, Ni, Cr, Pb, and Cd was studied in 52 samples of bottom sediments collected during Cruise 49 of the R/V Dmitrii Mendeleev in estuaries of the Ob and Yenisei rivers in the southwestern Kara Sea. Immediately after sampling, the samples were subjected to on-board consecutive extraction to separate metal species according to their modes of occurrence in the sediments: (1) adsorbed, (2) amorphous Fe-Mn hydroxides and related metals, (3) organic + sulfide, and (4) residual, or lithogenic. The atomic absorption spectroscopy of the extracts was carried out at a stationary laboratory. The distribution of Fe, Zn, Cu, Co, Ni, Cr, Pb, and Cd species is characterized by the predominance of lithogenic or geochemically inert modes (70–95% of the bulk content), in which the metals are bound in terrigenous and clastic mineral particles and organic detritus. About half of the total Mn amount and 15–30% Zn and Cu is contained in geochemically mobile modes. The spatiotemporal variations in the proportions of metal species in the surface layer of sediments along the nearly meridional sections and through the vertical sections of bottom sediments cores testify that Mn and, to a lesser extent, Cu are the most sensitive to changes in the sedimentation environment. The role of their geochemically mobile species notably increases under reducing conditions.     

Heavy metals in sediments of the rhine and elbe estuaries: Mobilization or mixing effect?

On their way from the Rhine estuary into the North Sea and Dutch Wadden Sea, Rhine sediments “lose” large portions of their original heavy metal concentrations. Until now these losses were explained by a mobilization process, solubilization — the decomposition products of organic matter form soluble organometallic complexes with the metals of the sediment. Our investigations of the sediments of the Elbe clearly indicate that a mixing process, whereby highly polluted Elbe sediments mix with relatively non-polluted North Sea sediments, rather than solubilization, is the cause of the dilution of heavy metals in the sediments of the Elbe estuary. Because of the similarity of the Elbe data with those from the Rhine River, we propose that a mixing process is also effective in the Rhine estuary and adjacent North Sea areas. The mechanism by which heavy metals are “diluted” is important to the marine ecosystem. In the mixing process proposed in this paper, the heavy metals fixed to the suspected material are trapped in bottom sediments of the marine environment, whereas solubilization would increase the concentration of heavy metals in the sea water and thus they would be more available for uptake by aquatic organisms.     

On the estuarine mixing of dissolved substances in relation to colloid stability and surface properties

The estuarine mixing of dissolved Fe, Cu, Ni, Si and surface-active organic matter has been investigated in the Taieri Estuary, New Zealand, simultaneously with measurements of the electrokinetic charge on colloidal particles. Dissolved Fe showed almost quantitative removal from solution characteristic of the coagulation of iron-containing colloids by seawater electrolytes. Surface active organic matter behaved conservatively, indicating that a relatively constant fraction of estuarine organic matter is surface active, but that organic species associated with iron during removal are a minor fraction. Results for Cu, Ni and Si were scattered but offered no evidence for gross removal during estuarine mixing. The negative charge on suspended colloids was not reversed by adsorption of seawater cations, but remained uniformly negative throughout the salinity range, decreasing sharply in magnitude during the first few %. salinity.     

The behaviour of dissolved organic material,iron and manganese in estuarine mixing

Fractionation by ultra-filtration of the dissolved organic material (DOM) in the River Beaulieu, with typical concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) of 7–8 mg C/l, showed it to be mainly in the nominal molecular weight range of 10³–10⁵, with 16–23% of the total DOC in the fraction > 10⁵. The molecular weight distribution of DOM in the more alkaline River Test (average DOC, 2 mg C/l) was similar. In the River Beaulieu water, containing 136–314 βg Fe/l in ‘dissolved’ forms, 90% or more of this Fe was in the nominal molecular weight fraction > 10⁵. Experiments showed that DOM of nominal molecular weight <10⁵ could stabilize Fe(III) in ‘dissolved’ forms. The concentrations of ‘dissolved’ Fe in the river water probably reflect the presence of colloidal Fe stabilized by organic material and this process may influence the apparent molecular weight of the DOM. Dissolved. Mn (100–136 βg/l) in the River Beaulieu was mainly in true solution, probably as Mn(II), with some 30% in forms of molecular weight greater than ca 10⁴.During mi xing in the Beaulieu Estuary, DOC and dissolved Mn behave essentially conservatively. This contrasts with the removal of a large fraction of the dissolved Fe (Holliday and LISS, 1976, Est. Coastal Mar. Sci. 4, 349–353). Concentrations of lattice-held Fe and Mn in suspended particulate material were essentially uniform in the estuary, at 3.2 and 0.012%, respectively, whereas the non-lattice held fractions decreased markedly with increase in salinity. For Mn the decrease was linear and could be most simply accounted for by the physical mixing of riverborne and marine participates, although the possibility that some desorption occurs is not excluded. The non-linear decrease in the concentration of non-lattice held Fe in particulates reflected the more complex situation in which physical mixing is accompanied by removal of material from the ‘dissolved’ fraction.     

Effects of physical mixing on the attenuation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in estuarine sediments

To examine the role of physical disturbance on the long-term preservation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments, cores were collected from two sites removed from point sources of PAHs and representing contrasting seabed mixing regimes. Although ΣPAH concentrations in sediments over the past 50 years were not significantly different between the two sites, several PAH isomer ratios were significantly different (P<0.05) between the two sites. Downcore changes in PAH isomer ratios resulted from preferential losses of the more linear PAH isomers. Thus, episodic, intense seabed mixing contributes to more efficient removal of selected PAHs. However, PAHs are still sufficiently stable relative to mixing events that historical PAH profiles can be used to reconstruct major resuspension events.     

Retention of white perch and striped bass larvae: Biological-physical interactions in Chesapeake Bay estuarine turbidity maximum

Physical and biological properties of the Chesapeake Bay estuarine turbidity maximum (ETM) region may influence retention and survival of anadromous white perch (Morone americana) and striped bass larvae (Morone saxatilis). To evaluate this hypothesis we collected data in five cruises, three during May 1998 and two during May 1999, in upper Chesapeake Bay. Time series of freshwater discharge, water temperature, wind, and water level explain differences in ETM location and properties between cruises and years. During high flows in 1998, a two-layer response to wind forcing shifted the ETM up-estuary, while a high discharge event resulted in a down-estuary shift in the salt front and ETM location. In 1999, extremely low discharge rates shifted the salt front 15 km up-estuary of its position in 1998. During 1999, the ETM was less intense and apparently topographically fixed. Gradients in depth-specific abundance of ichthyoplankton were compared with salinity and TSS concentrations along the channel axis of the upper Bay. During 1998, the high flow year, most striped bass eggs (75%) and most early-stage white perch larvae (80%) were located up-estuary of the salt front. In addition, most striped bass (91%) and white perch (67%) post-yolk-sac larvae were located within 10 km of maximum turbidity readings. Total abundance of white perch larvae was lower in 1999, a low freshwater flow year, than in 1998, a high flow year. In 1999, striped bass larvae were virtually absent. White perch (1977–1999) and striped bass (1968–1999) juvenile abundances were positively correlated with spring Susquehanna River discharge. The ETM regions is an important nursery area for white perch and striped bass larvae and life-history strategies of these species appear to insure transport to and within the ETM. We hypothesize that episodic wind and discharge events may modulate larval survival within years. Between years, differences in freshwater flow may influence striped bass and white perch survival and recruitment by controlling retention of egg and early-stage in the ETM region and by affecting the overlap of temperature/salinity zones preferred by later-stage larvae with elevated productivity in the ETM.     

Responses of estuarine phytoplankton communities to nitrogen form and mixing using microcosm bioassays

We examined the effects of different forms of nitrogen and mixed versus static conditions on the structure and function of natural Neuse River estuary phytoplankton communities incubated in 66-liter microcosms in March, May, August, and November 1999. Significant differences were found between effects of mixed versus static treatments in three of four experiments, but no differences were observed between effects of different forms of nitrogen. Mixed incubations resulted in higher contributions of diatoms to total community biomass (measured as chlorophylla) than in static tanks in May. Significantly higher rates of carbon fixation were also observed, likely due to increased suspension of diatoms in surface (illuminated) layers of the tanks. In August, we found significantly higher abundances of cyanobacteria, total community biomass, and rates of carbon fixation in static tanks than in tanks that were mixed. In November, static incubations showed significantly higher abundances of cryptophytes resulting in higher total community biomass and rates of carbon fixation in static tanks than in mixed tanks. Nitrogen additions significantly increased total community biomass relative to controls in May and August, indicating that the communities were nitrogen-limited at these times. We conclude that while nitrogen additions may result in increases in phytoplankton biomass when nitrogen is limiting, phytoplankton community structure in the Neuse River Estuary may be determined more by the hydrodynamics of the system (mixing versus stratification) than by the form of nitrogen available for growth.     

Removal of dissolved boron and silicon during estuarine mixing of sea and river waters

The behaviour of dissolved boron and silicon during mixing of sea and river waters has been studied in two surveys of the estuary of the River Alde in Suffolk, England. Removal of approximately 25–30 per cent was found for both elements. This appears to be the first report of estuarine removal of dissolved boron. The extent of removal of silicon in the Alde is somewhat higher than that found in other estuaries.