Unequal Competition Among Chains of Supercenters: Kmart,Target, and Wal‐Mart

The three largest discount chains, Kmart, Target, and Wal‐Mart, have adopted the supercenter format for expansion. This article examines the locations of and the competition among these supercenters. Wal‐Mart has the greatest number of supercenters and is driving the expansion of the supercenter format. Both Kmart and Target have clustered their supercenters in a small number of metropolitan markets. In contrast to Wal‐Mart and Kmart, Target has focused on a middle‐class rather than a blue‐collar clientele. Now Kmart is struggling following a declaration of bankruptcy. Wal‐Mart has largely defeated its supercenter competitors and now is confronting the major grocery chains for grocery sales.     

Assessing the impact of retail location on store performance: A comparison of Wal-Mart and Kmart stores in Cincinnati

This study aims to analyze and explain, from a locational perspective, differences in the performance of Wal-Mart and Kmart stores in the Greater Cincinnati Area. A modified Huff model, taking competition and agglomeration into consideration, is developed to estimate the potential sales of individual Kmart and Wal-Mart stores. Results show that the modified Huff model is capable of more accurately estimating individual store sales than traditional interaction models. This study also suggests that the selection of store locations partially explains the difference in performance between Kmart and Wal-Mart stores. The model is calibrated using data collected in 2003, and the validity of the model is supported by the latest development of the stores in Greater Cincinnati Area since 2003.     

Decoding the Development Strategy of a Major Retailer: Wal-Mart's Expansion in the United States

This research aims to provide insight regarding Wal-Mart's retail development strategy in its expansion across the continental United States. The study examines store location patterns and relationships between Wal-Mart's store and distribution center locations and markets. The study shows that, although radial expansion is broadly characteristic of the dense store patterns that have been well established for Wal-Mart at the national level, expansion patterns at the regional level are consistent with a selective process based on factors other than store density. These results provide a new perspective on Wal-Mart's expansion, providing insights of value to retail practitioners and local government.     

Spatial Diffusion of Wal-Mart: Contagious and Reverse Hierarchical Elements

In its 30 years of existence, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. has grown to become the largest retailer in the United States in terms of sales volume. This paper describes and analyzes the geographic expansion of Wal-Mart from its origin in northwest Arkansas. During its early years the firm grew slowly and opened stores primarily in small towns. In recent years it has expanded into metropolitan areas in order to serve more completely the U. S. market. The firm's expansion pattern has been characterized by elements of both neighborhood contagious diffusion and reverse hierarchical diffusion.     

Rural food accessibility: An analysis of travel impedance and the risk of potential grocery closures

This paper examines the potential spatial impact of grocery store closures and their impact on the food accessibility of the population of one rural county in Southern Illinois. Additionally, we offer public health officials a simple method for locating populations at particular risk of food inaccessibility in the event of a grocery store closure. A model is introduced for weighting different types of food outlets based on the types of food products offered to potential customers. By using a weighted system for measuring different types of food outlets, individual addresses, and a novel method of visualizing food access, we find an improved means of locating areas of risk in a fluid food-access landscape.     

Assessing the principles of spatial competition between stores within a retail network

This study investigates the impact of driving time and retail agglomerations on consumer store choice within a retail network. A pairwise comparison of confluencing store trade areas is conducted based on loyalty card information and exit questionnaires for six retailers operating in different product categories in Belgium. Results show that there is a stronger emphasis in the preference hierarchy on driving time towards a store for the daily goods retailer. Moreover, there is varying intra-network spatial competition depending on the type of location strategy pursued by the different retailers. Results show that for some retailers retail agglomeration effects are more outspoken than for others. However, impact of driving time on consumer intra-network store choice was independent of retail agglomeration size. Finally, results indicate that opening stores outside the pursued location strategy should be approached with care as significant impacts on sales cannibalization can emerge within the store network. These findings are important for crafting an overall expansion strategy for expansion managers as well as for marketing managers occupied with network changes at operational level.     

广州市零售业态空间分异特征与机制

零售业业态空间分异识别对优化城市资源配置至关重要,基于高精度大样本数据的零售业态空间分布识别较传统研究更精确便捷。以广州市2014年47 026个零售业网点数据为基础,基于信息熵、平均最近邻分析法、核密度估计等研究方法,探讨广州市的零售业分布格局、业态空间分异与零售业结构影响机制。结果表明：1）广州市零售业功能显著集聚于城市核心区,越秀、荔湾与天河北的零售功能发育相对均衡,均衡度从核心向外围显著下降;2）不同业态零售业分异较大,以商业服务和基本生活服务为主的零售业态网点分布的集聚度显著高于大体量的综合类零售业态;3）各业态零售业随着城市圈层的外拓分异显著,大体量型零售业态分布相对均衡,以商服功能为主的零售业态则主要集中于核心层与内圈层;4）人流集聚程度、交通通达性、职住人口分布、地方政策与社会空间分异共同影响着零售业业态空间的形成与演化。     

Area characteristics associated with food pantry use in Berlin – A cross-sectional ecological study

Although food pantries have become a crucial component of the food landscapes in many countries, so far they have rarely been included in research on the food environment. This study aims to map and analyze the relation between the proportion of adult food pantry users and child food pantry recipients as well as compositional and structural characteristics of areas in Berlin, Germany.Publicly accessible data including the percentage of adults and children receiving welfare and those with migration background were used to characterize area composition. Investigated structural resources included the availability of discount stores, stops of the public transport as well as 44 food pantries throughout the city. Small spatial units of two incongruent spatial area data sets were denominated to characterize the 44 food pantry areas and the areas within walking distance (1000 m) to a food pantry. Linear multiple regression models were conducted to model the proportion of food pantry recipients among adults and children. Results of the study showed that the proportion of child food pantry recipients was more than twice as high compared to the proportion of adult food pantry users, with large variations between pantries. The distribution of food pantries largely mirrored the distribution of welfare recipients in Berlin. Results of multiple regression analyses suggested that the percentage of adults receiving welfare benefits and the number of stops around a food pantry were positively, and the percentage of adults with migration background was negatively related to the proportion of adult food pantry users. Among children, the percentage of children receiving welfare benefits, the number of discount grocery stores per 1000 children, and the number of stops around a food pantry were positively related to the proportion of food pantry recipients. Results of the spatial analyses can be used to improve the allocation of social and food services to support impoverished people. Future studies could investigate whether there are unmet needs of food assistance services among inhabitants with migration background.     

LASCAM水文模型在流域生态水文过程研究中的应用——模型理论基础

LASCAM水文模型是一种大尺度分布式概念水文模型,介于高精度分布式水文模型和集总式经验模型之间,是基于亚流域空间单元建立的中等精度的分布式概念模型。LASCAM模型在亚流域空间单元定义了3个概念性土壤水库,在经验方程的基础上:①建立亚流域各土壤水库与亚流域生态特征(LAI)和气候(降雨)之间函数关系;②通过对亚流域的降雨-植冠截流过程、地表产流过程、表层入渗-亚表层产流过程、亚表层入渗过程的模拟,揭示降雨在亚流域的(地表和亚表层)径流和入渗等环节的再分配过程;③基于亚流域各土壤水库的水量(水位)建立了各土壤水库之间的水通量过程方程;④建立亚流域各库的蒸散发与生态特征(LAI)之间的函数关系模拟各库的蒸散发过程。最后,通过河道径流演算法则,并依据亚流域与流域总体之间的分布式关系,将各亚流域的径流汇总到整个流域,从而将亚流域空间的水文响应扩展到流域整体空间上,实现了大尺度异质性流域的水文过程和水量平衡模拟。     

以建成区面积表征的中国城市规模分布

选择1990~2000年中国城市用地面积位于前200位的地级及地级以上的城市用地资料,把运用在城市人口规模上的位序-规模法则移植到城市用地上,分析了城市土地利用规模的变化规律。然后运用分形理论,阐释了城市用地的位序-规模曲线。结果显示：(1)以建成区面积作为衡量城市规模的指标,中国城市规模分布符合位序-规模法则,拟合曲线的判定系数都在0.95以上;(2)根据位序-规模曲线的形态,中国城市按建成区面积可分为3类：用地面积>200 km²的大城市,50~200 km²的中等城市和<50 km²的小城市;(3)城市建成区用地的位序-规模曲线有平行向前推进的特点,这为预测我国未来城市建成区用地规模提供很好的基础;(4)中国位于前200位的城市用地规模分布的均衡度不断增强,城市建成区用地规模总量持续增加。     

青海东部史前文化对气候变化的响应

对青海东部史前文化的分布进行比较研究,表明史前文化在空间上不断扩大,较为显著的扩大曾发生过两次;同时以黄河谷地和湟水谷地为通道,史前文化从东向西不断扩展。青海东部史前文化分布与温度有显著的正相关,尤其是与日平均气温 ≥10 ^oC期间的积温关系最密切;且史前文化变迁与气候变化在时相上具有一致性。初步证明了史前文化的发展、扩张与气候变化呈显著的相关性,而气候变化是引起这种变化的深层原因,因此气候成为青海史前文化变迁的重要激发因子,它对文明的分布、传播、扩展、演变都产生了重要影响。     

1980年以来中国高等地理教育机构的发展：类型、增长与分布演变

为了厘清中国高等地理教育机构发展脉络,论文基于多种类型资料,梳理了1980—2021年中国高等地理教育机构的专业、沿革、停办数据,从类型、增长、分布3个层面讨论其发展过程,并探讨其当前主要问题。研究发现,近40余年中国高等地理教育机构发展有如下特征：① 主要分布在科研机构和高校中,且高校涉及综合、师范、工程与矿业等11类高校;② 地理学专业数量及其在机构中地位的差异使之有必要区分学科机构与专业机构;③ 数量增长包括1980—1998年稳定增长、1999—2009年快速增长、2010—2021年波动增长3个阶段,并主要受高校地理院系增长的影响,不同阶段不同类型高校地理院系增长又有差异;④ 分布演变可分为与数量增长时段相一致的省级稳定扩展、省级与地市级双轨快速扩展、省级与地市级双轨缓慢扩展3个阶段,不同类型机构空间分布及扩展态势也存在差异。当前中国高等地理教育机构已形成学科机构为主体、专业机构为扩展翼的发展态势,但有必要加强学科认同和学科共同体建设,以避免多样化发展可能引起的误解,改变仍然存在的高校学科院系“名实不符”现象,降低高校专业院系停办风险。     

Woodland expansion’s influence on belowground carbon and nitrogen in the Great Basin U.S.

Vegetation changes associated with climate shifts and anthropogenic disturbance can have major impacts on biogeochemical cycling and soils. Much of the Great Basin, U.S. is currently dominated by sagebrush (Artemisia tridentate (Rydb.) Boivin) ecosystems. Sagebrush ecosystems are increasingly influenced by pinyon (Pinus monophylla Torr. & Frém and Pinus edulis Engelm.) and juniper (Juniperus osteosperma Torr. and Juniperus occidentalis Hook.) expansion. Some scientists and policy makers believe that increasing woodland cover in the intermountain western U.S. offers the possibility of increased organic carbon (OC) storage on the landscape; however, little is currently known about the distribution of OC on these landscapes, or the role that nitrogen (N) plays in OC retention. We quantified the relationship between tree cover, belowground OC, and total below ground N in expansion woodlands at 13 sites in Utah, Oregon, Idaho, California, and Nevada, USA. One hundred and twenty nine soil cores were taken using a mechanically driven diamond tipped core drill to a depth of 90 cm. Soil, coarse fragments, and coarse roots were analyzed for OC and total N. Woodland expansion influenced the vertical distribution of root OC by increasing 15-30 cm root OC by 2.6 Mg ha⁻¹ and root N by 0.04 Mg ha⁻¹. Root OC and N increased through the entire profile by 3.8 and 0.06 Mg ha⁻¹ respectively. Woodland expansion influenced the vertical distribution of soil OC by increasing surface soil (0-15 cm) OC by 2.2 Mg ha⁻¹. Woodland expansion also caused a 1.3 Mg ha⁻¹ decrease in coarse fragment associated OC from 75-90 cm. Our data suggests that woodland expansion into sagebrush ecosystems has limited potential to store additional belowground OC, and must be weighed against the risk of increased wildfire and exotic grass invasion.     

高速公路经济带形成演化机制与布局规划方法探讨

交通经济带是区域开发的重要模式和手段,高速公路经济带是当代最重要、最普遍的交通经济带之一。通过大量实例的观察和实证分析,结合交通经济带以往的研究成果,对高速公路经济带基本特征进行了总结,分析了其形成演化机制;对布局规划的特征、内容等方面进行了初步的总结。     

中国淘宝店铺服务质量空间分异及影响因素

以淘宝最常见的五大类皇冠和金冠店铺数据为基础,构建淘宝店铺服务质量评价指标体系,运用熵权-TOPSIS、引力模型及地理探测器等方法,分析中国淘宝整体和五大类店铺服务质量空间分异特征及影响因素。结果表明：① 直辖市、省会城市和经济发达城市比经济欠发达城市淘宝店铺整体及各大类服务质量高;家居类、电子类比服装类、美妆类、食品类店铺服务质量高值区集聚明显。② 长三角、珠三角地区整体及各大类店铺服务质量均呈网络状分布,两两城市相互作用较强;北京、武汉、郑州等与外围城市呈“中心-外围”的辐射状分布;其他城市两两间相互联系较弱。美妆类、食品类店铺服务质量空间联系比电子类、服装类、家居类更为复杂,并且城市联系强度明显高于后3类。③ 全国尺度下,社会消费品零售总额对淘宝店铺服务质量具有主导作用,地区货运总量、互联网宽带接入户数、城市行政等级、普通高等学校数量起助推作用。东部地区店铺服务质量影响因素相互关联性强,以多因素叠加影响为主;中部地区影响因素呈一定等级性,各因素影响力层次性明显;西部地区与中部地区相似,但各因素影响力弱于中部地区;东北地区影响因素相对较少,各因素单独作用于店铺服务质量。     

DEFENSE BY EXPANSION: THE CASE OF MARSHALL FIELD*

Geographical studies of corporate behavior tend to overlook reactions from competitors and implicitly equate expansion with success. The paper challenges this tradition by discussing the defense of a troubled department store company against hostile takeover bids by expansionary strategies. The expansion was directed initially towards the bidders' home markets to create potential conflicts with antitrust laws. When the bidders retreated, the expansion was refocused on growth markets to maximize both corporate size and thereby also the financial resources needed for its takeover.     

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN AIR POLLUTION IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY

Geographical studies of corporate behavior tend to overlook reactions from competitors and implicitly equate expansion with success. The paper challenges this tradition by discussing the defense of a troubled department store company against hostile takeover bids by expansionary strategies. The expansion was directed initially towards the bidders' home markets to create potential conflicts with antitrust laws. When the bidders retreated, the expansion was refocused on growth markets to maximize both corporate size and thereby also the financial resources needed for its takeover.     

Territorial conflicts and urbanization in Yenagoa, Nigeria

The paper examines why Yenagoa, the major town and headquarter of Bayelsa State in Nigeria, is experiencing territorial problems, including boundary disputes, which do not exist in larger, fast growing urban areas in Nigeria (such as Lagos, Port Harcourt, Kano and Ibadan). For the purpose of data collection, Yenagoa is divided into 14 zones. A questionnaire survey sought to discover the pattern of interzonal relocation and space preference of residents. An index of environmental deterioration was devised through a measure of the total number, length and width of the stream channels, drainage density, area subject to flood pondage and percentage dry land available for urban expansion in each zone.Using correlation technique to relate environmental quality with relocation and space preference, the resultant indices show two sets of relationships: that there is a direct association between degree of environmental deterioration and desire to relocate, and that the degree of environmental stability of a zone is directly related to its relative attractiveness. Based on these cause–effect relationships, it is argued that Yenagoa has exceeded its carrying capacity. Consequently, there is a fusion of Yenagoa with its neighbouring zones who are resisting the territorial expansion of Yenagoa engineered by the urbanization process. The paper suggests urgent reclamation of flood prone areas in Yenagoa.     

数字地图要素样式结构化存储表达研究与实现

研究数字地图要素样式结构化存储问题,分析目前国内外最新研究进展和各种实现方式的优缺点。从地图要素样式共享的目的入手,探索遵循国际标准的样式实现方案;设计并使用XML的结构化可扩展特性,借助元编程的最新理念和Java编程语言实现兼容SLD标准的地图样式表达和存储机制。实验中定义了点、线、填充、字体等各种地图符号的XML表达形式,并与SLD主题样式相对应,与其他地图样式的转换操作表明,该模式可以实现地图要素样式的自定义设计和共享传播。     

USSR nationality redistribution by republic, 1979-1989: from published results of the 1989 all-Union census

"An additional report on the results of the 1989 population census...describes changes in the ethnic composition of Soviet republics and other major regions (e.g., Siberia), as well as changes in the spatial distribution of the country's major ethnic groups. Data from the major 1989 Goskomstat source publication are refined and supplemented by information from more recent sources. Coverage is in a format similar to the reported ethnic results of the 1979 population census...to facilitate comparability."