冻土的力学性质及研究现状

中国具有广大的季节冻土和多年冻土区,在冻土地区进行工程建设,就必须深入研究冻土的力学特性,以确保冻土地基上工程建筑物的稳定性。本文首先,简要介绍了我国冻土的分布状况和冻土区别于融土的基本特性,广义的冻土力学可分为冻融作用和已冻土力学性质两方面,冻胀、融沉和冻融循环引起的土力学性质的变化属于冻融作用的范畴。对于冻胀的研究较为深入,人们先后提出了多个理论来解释冻胀产生的机制,有的应用于计算分析中。对融沉的研究尽管具有较长的历史,但是多数停留在经验方法上,融化固结理论目前还有较大的局限性,因此提出一方面可以用人工神经网络法提高经验方法的精度和适用范围,另一方面应当发展融化固结大变形理论;冻融循环可以改变土的力学性质,介绍了作者的最近研究进展。针对已冻土的力学特性,从3方面进行了分析。冻土的强度主要沿用融土的强度理论,很难反映高应力下的压融现象;冻土动力学特性主要针对温度对动力学参数的影响,近年来冻土层对场地动力响应的影响越来越受到重视;冻土的本构关系多集中在蠕变研究,以经验公式法为主。最后,分析了多年冻土地区工程变形所涉及的物理力学过程。     

深部人工冻土在小应变条件下的刚度特性

以K0固结后在受载状态下冻结的冻结土体为研究对象,利用代表土体刚度特征的割线弹性模量,研究了在应变不超过0.5 %时,深部人工冻土的刚度随应变发展变化的趋势,分析了造成K0固结后冻结土体杨氏模量与未冻土体杨氏模量较大差异的原因,讨论了冻结温度和初始围压对K0固结后在受载状态下冻结的冻土刚度大小的影响以及对冻土屈服后刚度衰减速度的影响。     

高温冻结粉土力学特性试验研究

为了探讨高温冻结粉土的力学特性,进行了一系列常规三轴压缩和三轴压缩加卸载试验。结果表明：（1）随着围压的增大,应力应变曲线先表现为应变软化,后应变硬化,最后又应变软化。（2）体积应变曲线均表现为先体缩后体胀,且围压越大,体胀越弱。（3）通过引入改进的双曲线模型,能较好地模拟应变软化和硬化特性。在q-p平面内建立了一个新的强度准则,并利用修正Mohr-Coulomb屈服准则,探讨了黏聚力c和内摩擦角φ的变化规律。根据试验结果,确定了不同围压及不同加卸载循环次数下高温冻结粉土的回弹模量及其损伤变化规律。最后,建立了塑性体积变形和塑性剪切变形之间的关系式和表达式,进一步探讨了高温冻结粉土的剪胀特性。     

Interrelationship of the principal physicomechanical and thermophysical properties of coarse-grained frozen soils

The results of physical, mechanical and thermomechanical investigations of frozen coarse-grained soils with sandy clay aggregate are discussed. The authors propose a general classification of coarse-grained soils with fine aggregate, subdividing into skeleton and nonskeleton soils, and new methods for determination of their physicomechanical and thermal characteristics.

Special methods and formulae are given, that allow calculation of the main physicomechanical and thermal characteristics of coarse-grained soils in the same way as those of coarse particles and fine aggregates.

In common complex stability and deformation problems, and research on frozen, freezing and thawing soils, taking into account cryogenic and thermo mass transfer processes, it is proposed to investigate these soils on the basis of thermoelasticity and thermomechanics (rational thermodynamics).     

Stability of mine workings in frozen soils

The laws of rheological processes (creep and long-term strength) occurring in frozen soils are considered and initial equations formulated. Methods for determining the strength and deformability characteristics are described; the values of these characteristics are given.

Methods are considered for calculating the optimum thickness of the walls of ice—soil retaining structures built by means of artificial freezing and proposed by the authors, as well as methods of design for creep and long-term strength of the frozen soil surrounding various mine workings. The corresponding calculation equations are given; graphs are attached to facilitate the use of these equations. The calculation techniques are illustrated with examples.     

Some aspects of artificial thawing of frozen soils

Despite its important practical value the problem of artificial thawing of frozen soils by the vertical, cylindrical defreezer-pipe method has been studied only comparatively recently.

To facilitate excavation and/or foundation work in frozen soil in seasonally freezing and/or permafrost regions, the frozen soil can be loosened up, among other methods, by artificial thawing. For this purpose it is necessary to evaluate the amount of thermal energy needed to bring about the desired thawing. Such an evaluation involves consideration of the relationships between the frozen and thawed soil properties; temperature of the defrosting agent; the size and spacing of the defreezer pipes; and the time required to thaw a certain amount of frozen soil. Although in practice several methods are used for artificial thawing, in this paper, discussion on and calculations for defrosting of frozen soil are presented relative only to thawing by means of vertically installed defreezer pipes.     

冻结粉土强度准则探讨

冻土的强度随围压的增加呈先增大后减小的趋势,通过修正子午面内q-p曲线的斜率M*来探讨冻土强度变化规律。基于摩尔圆和包络线定理,推导了冻土内摩擦角随平均正应力的变化规律。假定偏应力的大小采用Mohr-Coulomb和Von-Mises强度准则的组合形式表示,将内摩擦角引入到偏平面中获得了偏平面内的强度准则。在不同温度（-6、-10、-15 ℃）和0.3～15.0 MPa围压下对冻结粉土进行了一系列低温三轴压缩试验,根据试验结果确定了子午面和偏平面的相关强度参数。结果表明：（1）子午面内的强度准则能较好模拟冻土在低围压下的强化效应和高围压下的弱化效应;（2）内摩擦角随平均正应力增大呈先增大后减小的趋势;（3）随控制参数s的增加,在偏平面内偏应力由Mohr-Coulomb包络线逐渐向Von-Mises包络线转化,其形状大小与极限强度值呈一一对应关系。最后通过试验结果与已有的强度准则对比表明：修正的强度准则具有一定的适用性。     

Cryogenic texture and strength aspects of artificially frozen soils

This paper elucidates some factors affecting the formation of soil cryogenic textures upon artificial active and passive soil freezing to form a soil-ice wall cofferdam.

Depending upon the soil type, the thermal regimen of the stages of active and passive freezing of the soil-ice wall brings about various kinds of cryogenic textures. The cryogenic textures, in thier turn, affect the strength of the artificially frozen soil-ice wall.

It is shown that upon loading, the variously oriented hexagonally crystallized ice crystals, upon application of externally applied loads, may become subjected to compression or bending or shear stresses, and/or to a combination of such stresses. Also, sustained loads on a frozen soil may bring about time-dependent, long-term deformation of the ice, viz., frozen soil, known as the rheological phenomenon creep.

It is postulated that the strength and performance of the composite frozen soil—the ice wall—is a function of its components, such as the soil cryogenic texture, its thermal regimen and the strength of the ice. It is also pointed out that the performance of the ice wall should be evaluated in terms of its strength and strains.     

Creep behaviour of frozen soils in uniaxial compression tests

The stress—strain behaviour of frozen soils is often described by means of creep curves from uniaxial or triaxial creep tests. Ten or twelve tests of similar samples are required to obtain a good relationship between stress σ, strain ε, temperature T and time t or strain rate ε. To reduce the required number of samples it is possible to apply the compression load in creep tests stepwise. Therefore creep curves for different stress levels can be obtained from one sample.

In this paper the bearing capacity of cylindrical samples of frozen medium sand under constant uniaxial compression stress and under stepwise increased stresses is compared. It is shown how to use these different creep curves to describe the stress—strain behaviour of frozen soils.     

Finite element method for time-dependent problems of frozen soils

Ground freezing technology is favoured in civil engineering, mainly in tunnelling. The time-dependent material characteristics in the form of creep control the bearing capacity of any frozen earth support system. The finite element method in connection with an initial strain algorithm is able to include these effects. The information about stress redistribution and deformation rate is important for an economic design. Case histories of different tunnel linings in frozen soil and two other examples of realized projects show the usefulness of such a procedure.     

冻土动荷载直剪仪的研制

冻土的动力学参数是工程设计的重要依据之一,也是数值模拟时不可或缺的因素,动力学参数的正确与否直接影响了工程设计和数值模拟的正确性。通过分析其他学者做过的冻土动荷载三轴试验,以及参考普通直剪仪器的构造,北京交通大学冻土室研制了一种新型的冻土动荷载直剪仪,该仪器将传统直剪仪的水平静载部分改造为能够提供动荷载作动器,可以提供一个0.1~6 Hz、20kN以内的动荷载,用于测定冻土的动力学参数。介绍了动荷载直剪仪的结构组成、动力系统、测控系统等,并详细分析了仪器框架、直剪盒、动荷载作动器等的参数选取方法。最后使用该仪器进行了一组验证试验,试验结果表明,动荷载直剪仪能够完成其设计目的,可以测量出冻土在动荷载下的应力-应变曲线,从而求出动弹性模量、动阻尼比等,为冻土的动力学参数测定开辟了一条新的道路。     

正冻土冻结缘研究现状及展望

湿土冻结过程中, 生长发育于冰透镜体与冻结锋面之间特殊的区间带称为冻结缘带。冻结缘作为温度场、 水分场和应力场三场耦合作用的结果, 是冰分凝的水源补给站, 冰水相变发生的剧烈区域以及水分迁移的必经之路, 具有重要的研究意义, 也是深入认识冻胀机理的基础。通过系统地阐述冻结缘的形成过程、 相关理论与试验、 微结构特征、 参数特征及冻结缘的模型构建等5个方面的研究进展及成果, 结合各个方向的发展趋势提出了冻结缘研究的重点, 即对冻结缘的研究应回归到试验研究, 利用新型测试技术深入对冻结缘微结构的观测, 结合物理参数及结构性参数变化构建耦合的冻结缘模型, 从而揭示其热力学机理, 为冻胀机制分析、 冻土精确预报提供理论支撑。     

Creep stress analysis of frozen soils under multiaxial states of stress

Creep behaviour of the so called Emscher-Marl is investigated in uniaxial compression tests under a temperature of −10°C. Similar to the results of creep tests published elsewhere, it is shown that the secondary creep controls the deformation. In cases of stationary creep the material behaves like a nonlinear elasto-viscous Maxwell fluid. Assuming no hydrostatic pressure effect, the power law applied to the uniaxial case can be transformed to multiaxial states of stress. For structures of frozen soil with a long-term deformation process Norton's power relationship between stress and rate of steady flow leads to reasonable results. As a numerical solution a finite-element computer program in connection with incremental procedure is developed for treatment of creep problems in groundfreezing technology. The calculation of a simply supported beam demonstrates the important influence of the high nonlinearity in stress and strain for frozen soils.     

Prediction of salt influence on unfrozen water content in frozen soils

The influence of salts in the pore water in freezing soils is examined from the experimental viewpoint, using the differential scanning calorimetry technique for generation of multiple endotherms of the frozen test samples. The experimental values obtained for montmorillonite, kaolinite and grundite, are evaluated in terms of unfrozen water contents for the respective soils at various subfreezing temperatures for various concentrations of NaCl. Comparison of experimental values with theoretical predictions using a combined salt exclusion and diffuse double-layer model shows excellent quantitative agreement for the montmorillonite soil samples, but only qualitative agreement for the kaolinite and grundite soils. The reasons for this lie in the theoretical model requirement for interlamellar migration of water in soil freezing for suitable application of the diffuse double-layer part of the model.     

冻土未冻水含量的量热法试验研究

冻土未冻水含量不但是评价冻土中水分迁移特性的重要指标,而且也是冻土热工计算中常用的参数。采用未冻水测量方法中的经典量热法对采自中俄石油管道工程大庆－漠河段沿线大兴安岭多年冻土带的6类典型土样（共76个）进行了-0.5、-2、-5、-10℃左右负温下的未冻水含量测试。分析了负温温度t、土质类型和初始含水率wo对未冻水含量wu的影响及其变化规律。通过统计分析,给出了6类土在上述4个给定温度下的未冻水含量代表值及其幂函数wu=at-b方程中的参数值。将黏土、粉质黏土、粉土和泥炭质土各给定温度下的未冻水含量对塑限wp归一化,得到各土类各温度下未冻水量系数值。对其进行幂函数拟合得到wu-wp-t经验计算公式。将温度、土质条件和初始含水率3影响因素进行综合分析,得到各类土在给定温度下的wu-wo-wp关系的二元一次线性回归经验方程式,为实际工程应用提供参考。     

Finite element modelling of pressuremeter tests and footings on frozen soils

A finite element code is developed to model the structure-frozen soil/ice interaction using a time incrementing, fully implicit, iterative algorithm, and a constitutive model based on the concept that total strain tensor consists of an elastic and a creep component. The code is used to investigate the applicability and limitations of the power law as the creep model for frozen soil by simulating two pressuremeter tests. Two extended phenomenological models based on the generalized power law are used in axisymmetric finite element analyses to simulate two, long-term, stage-loaded pressuremeter tests, and comparison of results with test data indicates that one model demonstrates a better ability to approximate the actual response to subsequent load steps, under certain restrictions. Stress analyses demonstrate the ability of the constitutive model to show transient as well as subsequent quasi-stationary stress stages in creep analysis. Additional simulations of short-term pressuremeter tests on ice are performed to further illustrate some limitations of the power-law model. Examples for prediction of creep settlements on frozen geomaterials are demonstrated by considering the interaction of fully flexible circular footings and concrete cylindrical footings (of different embedment depths) with frozen sands.     

非饱和（冻）土导热系数预估模型研究

岩土材料的导热系数是岩土工程温度场分析及建筑热工计算中的重要参数。研究旨在建立一个基于归一化导热系数概念和以土的干燥和饱和状态导热系数为基准的非饱和土导热系数的通用预估模型。通过对文献中328组实测数据的分析发现,将同类土在不同密实度条件下的各种导热系数-含水率曲线簇进行归一化处理后,可以得到惟一的归一化导热系数kr与饱和度Sr（归一化含水率）关系,1/kr与1/Sr呈相关性较好的线性关系,而每支1/kr-1/Sr直线均通过坐标（1,1）点的斜率由土质类型决定。据此提出了一个集成土质类型、密实度（孔隙率）和含水率（饱和度）等因素综合影响的融土和冻土导热系数通用预估模型,并给出了导热系数预估模型中土质参数的取值范围,以及融土和冻土处于完全干燥状态和饱和状态的确定方法。对预估模型进行验证结果表明,所提出的非饱和土导热系数预估模型具有较好准确性。     

Temperature deformations of frozen soils caused by rapid changes in temperature

The results of the study of the temperature deformations for different types of frozen soils due to rapid temperature variations in cooling–heating cycles have been described. The difference in the patterns of the temperature deformation for step-like and single variations of temperature has been established. The dependence of the temperature deformation of frozen soil on the soil type, the total moisture, and the number of the cooling–heating cycles has been studied.