Architecture of fault zones determined from outcrop, cores, 3-D seismic tomography and geostatistical modeling: example from the Albalá Granitic Pluton, SW Iberian Variscan Massif

The 3-D seismic tomographic data are used together with field, core and well log structural information to determine the detailed 3-D architecture of fault zones in a granitic massif of volume 500×575×168 m at Mina Ratones area in the Albalá Granitic Pluton. To facilitate the integration of the different data, geostatistical simulation algorithms are applied to interpolate the relatively sparse structural (hard) control data conditioned to abundant but indirect 3-D (soft) seismic tomographic data. To effectively integrate geologic and tomographic data, 3-D migration of the velocity model from the time domain into the depth domain was essential. The resulting 3-D model constitutes an image of the fault zone architecture within the granitic massif that honours hard and soft data and provides an evaluation of the spatial variability of structural heterogeneities based on the computation of 3-D experimental variograms of Fracture Index (fault intensity) data. This probabilistic quantitative 3-D model of spatially heterogeneous fault zones is suitable for subsequent fluid flow simulations. The modeled image of the 3-D fault distribution is consistent with the fault architecture in the Mina Ratones area, which basically consists of two families of subvertical structures with NNE–SSW and ENE–WSW trends that displaces the surfaces of low-angle faults (North Fault) and follows their seismically detected staircase geometry. These brittle structures cut two subvertical dykes (27 and 27′ Dykes) with a NNE–SSW to N–S trend. The faults present high FI (FI>12) adjacent bands of irregular geometry in detail that intersect in space delimiting rhombohedral blocks of relatively less fractured granite (FI<6). Both structural domains likely correspond with the protolith and the damaged zone/fault core in the widely accepted model for fault zone architecture. Therefore, the construction of 3-D grids of the FI in granitic areas affected by brittle tectonics permits the quantitative structural characterization of the rock massif.     

阿尔金断裂新生代构造活动的两阶段性——来自地震属性分析的证据

自新生代以来,柴达木盆地西北缘各构造单元受青藏高原持续挤压和阿尔金断裂走滑的影响,构造变形复杂,发育有多种不同性质,不同规模的断裂.地震属性技术是三维(3D)地震资料解释和构造分析的可靠依据,有助于客观、准确的揭示断裂的空间分布情况,是复杂地区地质解释的重要工具.本文利用地震属性技术,对位于阿尔金断裂南侧柴达木盆地西部的小梁山背斜深、浅层进行详细的断裂解译,发现该地区深部发育早期EW向逆冲断层;晚期由于阿尔金断裂大规模走滑的作用,形成由深部引发的NW向“楔形”逆冲断层,深部NW向断层的活动引发浅层的滑脱褶皱.综合分析认为阿尔金断裂新生代的活动分为早期隆升形成EW向斜向逆冲断层,晚期走滑运动发育控制现今背斜形态的NW向断层,具有两阶段活动的特点.     

海拉尔盆地贝尔凹陷南部层间构造及岩性圈闭的三维地震解释

应用Landmark工作站SeisWorks地震解释和Geopmbe三维可视化模块,以构造、岩性圈闭识别和储层预测等技术为手段,对海拉尔盆地敖瑙海地区主要勘探目的层系内部的层间构造和岩性圈闭进行了精细解释.由已知井出发,确定层间构造的油层顶面位置并进行层位追踪.利用相干数据体以及相干体水平切片、相干体沿层切片技术对三维资料进行断层解释,最终编制出油层顶面构造图完成层间构造解释.利用Geoprobe三维可视化全方位浏览数据体、体透视、种子点追踪、层拉平及反拉平技术完成岩性圈闭解释.通过对层间构造和岩性圈闭进行精细刻画,为探井部署提供了可靠依据.经钻探,多口探井见到较好的油气显示并获工业油流,为贝中次凹提交6 73×104t石油预测储量奠定了坚实基础.     

中国大陆科学钻探孔区三维地震资料的初步解释

利用中国大陆科学钻探岩心、测井与VSP资料来标定地震反射体，大大提高了大陆科学钻探孔区地质构造解释的可信度。超高压变质带地壳波速特征主要表现在上地壳顶部的高速层，其厚度一般小于10km；其下方正常的中下地壳波速结构反映了中新生代地壳的拉张与伸展。孔区三维地震拱形反射由榴辉岩及切穿它们的晚期破碎带共同形成的。在CCSD主孔东南方深部重力高部位有多个这样的拱形反射，预示在地表陡倾榴辉岩的延伸方向还有多个一定规模的隐伏榴辉岩体。孔区广泛发育韧性剪切带，韧性剪切带产生强反射的主要机制是韧性剪切复合岩套，由糜棱岩和经剪切错动产生的表壳岩片互层组成。三维地震调查提供了三维的反射地震波场，使揭示孔区三维的地质构造成为可能。450ms以上的时间切片与地袁地质构造和地磁异常相关，而1000～1200ms的时间切片与深部重力异常相关，主要反映由隐伏榴辉岩体产生的反射波场．根据上述研究结果，编制了沿三维地震主剖面的推断地质构造图。     

Ultrashallow seismic experiment on a trenched section of the Chelunpu fault zone, Taiwan

Ultrashallow P-wave seismic reflection experiments were conducted at a model test site and in a trenched shallow fault zone along the Chelunpu fault line. The field layout was designed to have the shallowest undistorted reflection from about 1 m depth with 0.5 m vertical resolution. The smallest group interval tested in this study was 0.05 m with a 0.25 ms sample interval, which can avoid spatial aliasing of ground roll if the target is very shallow and the velocities are low. Data processing was designed to be simple but consistent. As the ultrashallow reflections may be contaminated with high-amplitude coherent noise in many aspects, first break muting and surgical muting were performed on each file as detailed as possible, and f–k filtering was applied mainly for the purpose of attenuating the aliasing energy and back-scattered noise. Data acquired in this study show that the low P-wave velocities (< 200 m/s) and high dominant frequencies (120–200 Hz) of near-surface layers may have a potential vertical resolution of 0.4 m or even better.Comparing the test profile with the ground-penetrating radar (GPR) control profile of the same test site and correlating the results obtained from the study site with those of the geologic cross-section of the trench, this experiment demonstrates the possibility of using seismic methods in investigating shallow structures at depths of less than a few meters with vertical resolution comparable to the GPR technique.     

三维地震属性分析解释技术在山西赵庄矿的应用

依托山西晋煤集团赵庄矿三维地震勘探项目进行三维地震属性分析解释技术的应用研究,对其关键技术进行了重点描述,并应用多种属性联合解释方式与三维可视化技术、三维地质建模技术相结合,对小的断层和陷落柱等进行了解释。同时,选取多种属性作为BP神经网络预测模型的基本参数,预测了煤层的厚度。通过对比目前煤田三维地震勘探中通行的常规资料处理解释和属性分析解释两种方法的效果,认为属性分析解释更加精细,成果更加可靠。     

Hanging-wall deformation and gas-migration associated to a major salt detaching fault in the Norwegian Danish Basin

The central and southern regions of the North Sea Basin are characterized by mobile Zechstein Salt and represent an excellent area to study listric normal fault development related to halokinesis. The North Sea Basin–in spite of being a mature explored hydrocarbon producing basin-contains a generally not fully understood hydrocarbon plumbing system. Faults and associated fluid migration routes represent critical elements of the plumbing system. Here we present a combined 3D seismic mapping of a listric fault and detailed seismic attribute analysis of shallow gas anomalies near the fault implying a close and complex relationship between a major detaching fault, hangingwall deformation and fluid migration and entrapment. The fault and associated antithetic and secondary synthetic faults is controlled by the growth of the underlying salt structure. Three separate segments of the fault are recognized showing distinct and varying characteristics of structural maturity and fluid migration. The studied fault and shallow gas anomalies thus represent an example of a complex faulted shallow fluid migration system developing in relation to an underlying salt structure which could be relevant for understanding similar salt, fault and fluid migration systems around the world.     

3D seismic analysis of the structure and evolution of a salt-influenced normal fault zone: A test of competing fault growth models

In this paper we determine the structure and evolution of a normal fault system by applying qualitative and quantitative fault analysis techniques to a 3D seismic reflection dataset from the Suez Rift, Egypt. Our analysis indicates that the October Fault Zone is composed of two fault systems that are locally decoupled across a salt-bearing interval of Late Miocene (Messinian) age. The sub-salt system offsets pre-rift crystalline basement, and was active during the Late Oligocene-early Middle Miocene. It is composed of four, planar, NW–SE-striking segments that are hard- linked by N–S-striking segments, and up to 2 km of displacement occurs at top basement, suggesting that this fault system nucleated at or, more likely, below this structural level. The supra-salt system was active during the Pliocene-Holocene, and is composed of four, NW–SE-striking, listric fault segments, which are soft-linked by unbreached relay zones. Segments in the supra-salt fault system nucleated within Pliocene strata and have maximum throws of up to 482 m. Locally, the segments of the supra-salt fault system breach the Messinian salt to hard-link downwards with the underlying, sub-salt fault system, thus forming the upper part of a fault zone composed of: (i) a single, amalgamated fault system below the salt and (ii) a fault system composed of multiple soft-linked segments above the salt. Analysis of throw-distance (T-x) and throw-depth (T-z) plots for the supra-salt fault system, isopach maps of the associated growth strata and backstripping of intervening relay zones indicates that these faults rapidly established their lengths during the early stages of their slip history. The fault tips were then effectively ‘pinned’ and the faults accumulated displacement via predominantly downward propagation. We interpret that the October Fault Zone had the following evolutionary trend; (i) growth of the sub-salt fault system during the Oligocene-to-early Middle Miocene; (ii) cessation of activity on the sub-salt fault system during the Middle Miocene-to-?Early Pliocene; (iii) stretching of the sub- and supra-salt intervals during Pliocene regional extension, which resulted in mild reactivation of the sub-salt fault system and nucleation of the segmented supra-salt fault system, which at this time was geometrically decoupled from the sub-salt fault system; and (iv) Pliocene-to-Holocene growth of the supra-salt fault system by downwards vertical tip line propagation, which resulted in downward breaching of the salt and dip-linkage with the sub-salt fault system. The structure of the October Fault Zone and the rapid establishment of supra-salt fault lengths are compatible with the predictions of the coherent fault model, although we note that individual segments in the supra-salt array grew in accordance with the isolated fault model. Our study thereby indicates that both coherent and isolated fault models may be applicable to the growth of kilometre-scale, basin-bounding faults. Furthermore, we highlight the role that fault reactivation and dip-linkage in mechanically layered sequences can play in controlling the three-dimensional geometry of normal faults.     

Pseudo-unconformities in seismic models of large outcrops

Traditionally, seismic modeling has concentrated on one-dimensional borehole modeling and two-dimensional forward modeling of basic structural-stratigraphic schemes, which are directly compared with real seismic data. Two-dimensional seismic models based on outcrop observations may aid in bridging the gap between the detail of the outcrop and the low resolution of seismic lines. Examples include the Dolomites (North Italy), the Vercors (SE France), and the High Atlas (Morocco). The seismic models are generally constructed using the following procedure: (a) construction of a detailed lithologic model based on direct outcrop observations; (b) division of the lithologic model into lithostratigraphic units; (c) assignment of petrophysical properties to these lithostratigraphic units; (d) ray tracing to compute time- or depth sections of reflectivity; (e) convolution of the reflectivity sections with source wavelets of different frequencies. The lithologic detail modeled in the case studies led to some striking results, particularly the discovery of pseudo-unconformities. Pseudo-unconformities are unconformities in seismics, but correspond to rapid changes of dip and facies in outcrop. None of the outcrop geometries studied were correctly portrayed seismically at 25-Hz peak frequency. However, in some instances the true relationship would gradually emerge at peak frequencies of 50–100 Hz. The examples given in this study demonstrate that detailed, outcrop-derived, seismic models can reveal what stratigraphic relationships and features are likely to be resolved under ideal or less-ideal conditions, and what pitfalls may befall the interpreter of real seismic data.     

高密度三维地震数据驱动的煤层岩浆岩侵入区综合解释方法与应用

淮北矿区主采煤层多存在岩浆岩侵入现象,且具有侵入煤层多、分布面积广、侵入方式复杂等特点,常规地震勘探无法保证其解释精度。针对该问题,以全数字高密度三维地震勘探数据体为基础,对比分析不同岩浆岩侵入状态的地震响应特征;综合利用基于地层物性差异的地震多属性分析技术、基于波形差异的地震相分析技术和基于阻抗差异的测井约束波阻抗反演技术,进行煤层岩浆岩侵入区的识别与解释,精细雕刻其空间分布规律。研究表明：薄层岩浆岩侵入区以测井约束的波阻抗反演解释精度高,厚层岩浆岩侵入区预测则综合地震属性分析与地震相分析结果。因此,根据矿区的煤层分布和岩浆岩侵入特征,综合运用地震属性技术、地震相技术与波阻抗反演技术,能有效刻画出岩浆岩侵入煤层的分布范围。     

鄂尔多斯盆地中东部中深层波组特征及地质意义

鄂尔多斯盆地中东部奥陶系盐下油气勘探近年来取得重要突破,明确中深层中元古界—奥陶系的地震反射波组特征,具有重要油气勘探意义。运用最新的钻井和地震资料,在不同岩性速度分析基础上,井—震联合精细标定,明确波组横向变化特征及其地质意义。研究结果表明：1）中深层地震反射可划分为连续性较好的奥陶系与连续性较差的前奥陶系两大波系,细分为中-弱振幅、低-中频、连续性较差（Ⅰ）,中-强振幅、低频、连续性较好（Ⅱ）,中-弱振幅、连续性较好（Ⅲ）,中-强振幅、中-高频、连续性好（Ⅳ）4类波组;2）不同岩性组合方式及厚度变化使同一地层在不同地区波组特征不同,Ⅰ类波组分布在前奥陶系,Ⅱ类波组分布在米脂区马一段,Ⅲ类波组分布于中东部马二段与马四段以及华池区马三段,Ⅳ类波组分布在米脂区马三段以及中东部马五段;3）波组横向突变及纵向接触关系揭示该区发育两大类盐滑脱褶皱及低角度削截与超覆不整合。波组特征分析为中东部中元古界—奥陶系构造演化、沉积相带展布提供参考。

     

地震相分析在探测煤层中火成岩侵入范围的应用

煤田地震岩性解释普遍采用波阻抗反演技术和地震属性技术,二者的共同缺陷是无法把握地震信号的总体变化及其分布规律。基于波形的地震相分析技术综合利用了地震波的频率、相位、速度、能量等各种信息,即基于地震信号的整体差异进行分类。把地震相分析技术引入煤田三维地震资料岩性解释中,在确定煤层中火成岩侵入范围中取得了初步地质成果。     

三维地震属性解释技术在巷道探测中的应用

针对煤矿安全生产中老窑巷道的位置和边界难以确定的困扰,对采煤巷道进行正演模拟,分析了巷道在二维地震资料剖面上的反映特征及敏感属性特征。以内蒙某区三维地震为例,在高品质数据采集的前提下,对实际三维地震资料进行保幅处理;在常规解释的基础上提取平均振幅、平均地震能量和均方根振幅等多种属性进行巷道定位解释。最终,解释结果与采掘工程图比对,巷道定位准确。     

断层几何形态反演的计算机模拟

构造反演是指利用构造变形形态反推使之变形的断层的几何参数。在拉张构造区域,从理论上解决构造反演问题是相当成功的。而对于挤压推覆构造区域,由于其逆断层因上盘上升过程,使得其推算的断层只能获取下盘断点以下的构造形态,所以在实际运用中,特别是对于复杂构造叠加区域,其反演过程更多的是依靠人工干预的方法来进行。鉴于此,利用较成熟的拉张构造区域的理论方法,自行提出了单剪变形的挤压构造反演方法来完善,并通过计算机模拟来实现,以此为正演平衡剖面计算,提供一个初始的断层几何模型,并为验证地震剖面解释的合理性提供辅助作用。     

鲜水河断裂带乾宁段岩石特征与内部结构及其物理-化学性质

断裂带的变形行为和断层滑移机制是目前地震研究关注的热点,断裂带岩石特征、内部结构与物理化学性质是确定断层蠕滑或粘滑行为以及断层滑移机制的基础和关键。本文以鲜水河断裂带乾宁段地表出露的断裂岩为研究对象,通过野外地质调查、室内光学显微镜、扫描电镜、粒度统计、粉末X射线衍射分析（XRD）和薄片X射线荧光光谱分析（XRF）等多种研究方法,对鲜水河断裂带岩石特征、结构构造、物性、矿物成分及化学元素分布开展了详细的分析,并探讨了相关变形行为和滑移机制。分析表明：（1）断裂带核部主要由黑色断层泥、浅黄色及黄色断层角砾岩和灰色碎裂岩、灰色断层角砾岩组成,呈单核对称结构;（2）黑色断层泥厚3~5cm,具有快速滑动结构特征,表现为断层粘滑行为。断层泥可划分出13个滑移带,最窄滑移带厚约40μm,至少代表13期古地震事件;（3）断层泥主要由伊利石、高岭石和石英等矿物组成,其中边部伊蒙混层含量异常高,为最新一次古地震的主滑移带。由于伊利石和伊蒙混层（或蒙脱石）为主要黏土矿物的断层泥渗透率低、孔隙流体压力大,以及发现断层泥楔入脉,表明地震过程中断层滑动存在热增压弱化机制;（4）从断层泥不同滑动带中碎块蚀变程度和矿物分布特征来看,地震主滑动带有向碎裂岩方向迁移的趋势。推测断层在滑动过程中,更趋向于向弱矿物含量高（如伊利石、伊蒙混层）、强矿物含量低（如方解石、高岭石）的围岩一侧迁移。

     

The Olmsted fault zone, southernmost Illinois: A key to understanding seismic hazard in the northern new Madrid seismic zone

Geological deformation in the northern New Madrid seismic zone, near Olmsted, Illinois (USA), is analyzed using integrated compressional-wave (P) and horizontally polarized-wave (SH) seismic reflection and regional and dedicated borehole information. Seismic hazards are of special concern because of strategic facilities (e.g., lock and dam sites and chemical plants on the Ohio River near its confluence with the Mississippi River) and because of alluvial soils subject to high amplification of earthquake shock. We use an integrated approach starting with lower resolution, but deeper penetration, P-wave reflection profiles to identify displacement of Paleozoic bedrock. Higher resolution, but shallower penetration, SH-wave images show deformation that has propagated upward from bedrock faults into Pleistocene loess. We have mapped an intricate zone more than 8 km wide of high-angle faults in Mississippi embayment sediments localized over Paleozoic bedrock faults that trend north to northeast, parallel to the Ohio River. These faults align with the pattern of epicenters in the New Madrid seismic zone. Normal and reverse offsets along with positive flower structures imply a component of strike-slip; the current stress regime favors right-lateral slip on northeast-trending faults. The largest fault, the Olmsted fault, underwent principal displacement near the end of the Cretaceous Period 65 to 70 million years ago. Strata of this age (dated via fossil pollen) thicken greatly on the downthrown side of the Olmsted fault into a locally subsiding basin. Small offsets of Tertiary and Quaternary strata are evident on high-resolution SH-wave seismic profiles. Our results imply recent reactivation and possible future seismic activity in a critical area of the New Madrid seismic zone. This integrated approach provides a strategy for evaluating shallow seismic hazard-related targets for engineering concerns.     

Utilisation of the image analysis method for the detection of the morphological anisotropy of calcite grains in marble

This paper presents the development and utilisation of an automated image processing algorithm for detection and analysis of grains. Using optical polarising microscopy, a set of colored images are collected from an area on a thin section. A filtering operation, using rotation of a morphological alternating sequence filter (based on a structuring element), is used to remove twinning features within individual grains. Filtering is followed by the watershed segmentation technique to determine grain boundaries. The method is used for the identification of calcite grains in marble and the subsequent analysis of morphological anisotropy.     

Finite-element 3D modeling of stress patterns around a dipping fault

Stresses in a block around a dipping fracture simulating a damage zone of a fault are reconstructed by finite-element modeling. A fracture corresponding to a fault of different lengths, with its plane dipping at different angles, is assumed to follow a lithological interface and to experience either compression or shear. The stress associated with the destruction shows an asymmetrical pattern with different distances from the highest stress sites to the fault plane in the hanging and foot walls. As the dip angle decreases,the high-stress zone becomes wider in the hanging wall but its width changes negligibly in the foot wall.The length of the simulated fault and the deformation type affect only the magnitude of maximum stress,which remains asymmetrical relative to the fault plane. The Lh/Lfratio, where Lhand Lfare the widths of high-stress zones in the hanging and foot walls of the fault, respectively, is inversely proportional to the fault plane dip. The arithmetic mean of this ratio over different fault lengths in fractures subject to compression changes from 0.29 at a dip of 80°to 1.67 at 30°. In the case of shift displacement, ratios are increasing to 1.2 and 2.94, respectively.Usually they consider vertical fault planes and symmetry in a damage zone of faults. Following that assumption may cause errors in reconstructions of stress and fault patterns in areas of complex structural setting. According geological data, we know the structures are different and asymmetric in hanging and foot walls of fault. Thus, it is important to quantify zones of that asymmetry. The modeling results have to be taken into account in studies of natural faults, especially for practical applications in seismic risk mapping, engineering geology, hydrogeology, and tectonics.     

Stochastic simulations of fault networks in 3D structural modeling

3D structural modeling is a major instrument in geosciences, e.g. for the assessment of groundwater and energy resources or nuclear waste underground storage. Fault network modeling is a particularly crucial step during this task, for faults compartmentalize rock units and plays a key role in subsurface flow, whether faults are sealing barriers or drains. Whereas most structural uncertainty modeling techniques only allow for geometrical changes and keep the topology fixed, we propose a new method for creating realistic stochastic fault networks with different topologies. The idea is to combine an implicit representation of geological surfaces which provides new perspectives for handling topological changes with a stochastic binary tree to represent the spatial regions. Each node of the tree is a fault, separating the space in two fault blocks. Changes in this binary tree modify the fault relations and therefore the topology of the model.     

龙门山汶川-茂县断裂带的岩石磁学特征及其地震作用的指示意义

汶川-茂县断裂带是龙门山后山断裂,是松潘-甘孜褶皱带与龙门山断裂带之间的边界断层,然而,在2008年M_W 7.9级汶川大地震中并没有发生破裂。同时,汶川-茂县断裂带在汶川地震之前是否发生过历史大地震仍缺少确切的证据。这不仅制约着汶川地震发生机制的认识,而且还影响对龙门山形成演化过程的理解。因此,确定汶川-茂县断裂带的断裂作用环境对于认识龙门山断裂带的地震发生机制至关重要。断裂岩的岩石磁学可以有效地揭示断裂带的物理和化学环境。本文以汶川-茂县断裂带北部地表露头的断裂岩为研究对象,通过岩石磁学研究,并结合显微结构观察和地球化学分析,探讨汶川-茂县断裂带的断裂作用环境。断层泥和断层角砾岩最大磁化率值分别约为围岩的30倍和15倍,具有高磁化率值特征。断层泥的主要载磁矿物为磁铁矿、磁黄铁矿、针铁矿;断层角砾岩的主要载磁矿物为磁黄铁矿、针铁矿。断层泥的高磁化率值异常的主要原因是围岩中的含铁矿物在地震摩擦热和流体作用下新生成磁铁矿和磁黄铁矿。断层角砾岩的高磁化率值异常是围岩在含有大量硫元素的低温热液流体作用下生成了磁黄铁矿。大量针铁矿指示了震后期还原性的低温热液流体作用。断裂岩的高磁化率值异常和新生磁铁矿指示了汶川-茂县断裂带曾经发生了摩擦热温度>500℃的大地震活动,发震和震后期均为还原性的硫元素含量较高的低温热液流体环境。