Perceptions of human well-being across diverse respondents and landscapes in a mountain-basin system,China

Human well-being is an important concept for human-nature interactions and affected by social, ecologic, and personal factors. There is increasing consensus about the importance of public perceptions of human well-being, but studies on this are still scarce. Here, we conducted 445 face-to-face interviews to assess subjective well-being across diverse respondents and landscapes in the Huailai mountain-basin system, China. The results suggest the actualization process of human well-being is similar to Maslow's hierarchy of needs. We found that mental health was disregarded by most respondents, while basic material for a good life was most valued. Moreover, our results show differences of well-being across different socio-demographic and landscapes characteristics. Apart from good social relations, elderly respondents had highest levels of human well-being in all other four dimensions; respondents from mountainous land with a high level of ecological conservation had the lowest level of well-being. We discuss the factors contribution to well-being and its implications for local management and policies. Understanding the implications of respondents and landscapes characteristics on human well-being can help managers to develop efficient and specific policies.     

西安市城市景观的正负生态系统服务测算及空间格局

综合测评城市景观的复合（正负）生态系统服务功能和评价不同城市景观类型的生态系统服务贡献,对优化、调控在城市化影响下的景观转换和城市生态环境建设等具有重要的科学意义。运用景观生态学理论与生态系统服务理论,基于研究区的TM遥感影像和Erdas、ArcGIS 10.1软件对西安市建成区2013年城市景观的复合生态系统服务进行测算和空间分析。结果表明：① 西安城市景观产生的负向生态系统服务价值远高于正向生态系统服务价值,净生态系统服务达-12.71×10⁸元;在城市化过程中,随着自然景观向半人工景观、人工景观的转变,导致景观生态系统服务的价值急剧下降,负向生态系统服务占主导,87.81%的土地复合生态系统服务为负值,仅有12.19%的土地复合生态系统服务为正值,以建筑用地为主体的城市景观体系必然会导致生态系统服务的下降。② 西安市城市景观的总正向生态系统服务空间分布差异明显,整体呈现为研究区中心值低于四周,沿行道绿地、公园绿地等景观形成格网状、斑块状分布的高值区;总负向生态系统服务整体上呈现中心值高于四周,高值区较集聚,自然景观和半人工景观是维系城市正向生态系统服务的主要景观类型。③ 城市景观的空间分布基本上决定了复合生态系统服务的空间大格局,西安市各城市景观类型的空间组合与镶嵌状况,使得生态系统服务正负值呈斑块状、棋盘状交错分布的格局。愈向城市外围,复合生态系统服务价值越高;城中林地、绿地和水域分布的地方是复合生态系统服务价值网状高值区。     

Integrating landscape connectivity into the evaluation of ecosystem services for biodiversity conservation and its implications for landscape planning

This paper examines the integration of landscape connectivity and ecosystem services. It is based on the assumption that if a habitat within a landscape has a more significant role in connecting with other habitats, it would have a higher ecosystem services value for biodiversity conservation. The Shenzhen River watershed, a cross-border region shared by the city of Shenzhen and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region in China, was used as a case study. An area-based functional connectivity index, known as the possibility of connectivity (PC), was implemented to examine the temporal and spatial dynamics of the value of ecosystem services for biodiversity conservation over the period from 1988 to 2008. To evaluate the effectiveness of the PC index, a comparison was made between the conventional assessment method for ecosystem services and the proposed method. Results suggest that our proposed method can identify significant reduction of ecosystem services that was not only due to the decrease of habitat size, but also caused by the damage of connectivity among habitat patches. Also, it can identify sites which should have a high priority in restoring the ecosystem services for biodiversity conservation. In conclusion, this study provides a way to consider landscape connectivity in the evaluation of ecosystem services which is essential for landscape planning and nature conservation.     

Comparison of input data with different spatial resolution in landscape pattern analysis – A case study from northern Latvia

A suitable spatial scale needs to be selected in geographical and landscape ecological research, and this requires great consideration as different scales have profound effect on derived landscape spatial patterns. Numerous studies have investigated the effects of different scales on landscape metrics using simulated patterns, but few have been conducted to compare different data sources with variable scale for regional- and landscape-scale assessments. Possibly this has occurred because researchers have been prone to use the best available source, a well-known standard, and easiest to use. This study was conducted to assess the impact of input data resolution on values of landscape pattern metrics in four landscapes at scales 1:10 000, 1:50 000 and 1:100 000. The aim was to determine the applicability of three data sources for thematic models in landscape pattern analyses in the Eastern Baltic region. We found that the utility of CORINE Land Cover data for comprehensive structural assessment in mosaic-type landscapes was very limited, as the level of cartographic generalization excluded many small and linear landscape structure elements with potentially high importance for landscape functioning, such as habitat continuity. We also found that actual area harvested using clearcuts was considerably higher than shown in CORINE data, due to clearcuts size being much smaller than the minimum mapping unit. In the light of this, we suggest using data with spatial resolution corresponding to a cartographic scale of at least 1:50 000, in cases when spatial patches have size up to 25 ha.     

Exploring a combination of objective and subjective assessment in landscape classification: Side case from Turkey

Landscape is a product of interactions between human and nature that bring multiple characteristics to discrete geographic settings. Landscape character assessment (LCA) is a process of describing, mapping and evaluating distinct characters in the landscape. The aim of this study is to integrate objective and subjective assessment in landscape classification in the case of Side district in Antalya, Turkey. The methodology of the study is based on a holistic approach to combine map-based biophysical information and on-site visual landscape characteristics into the LCA process. Principal component and cluster analysis were used to understand relationships and spatial patterns between 29 landscape character areas and types which were previously defined by previous work. The main source of data was landscape characters, and 35 character attributes was processed as variables. Cluster analysis showed that landscape character areas and types in Side were gathered into two main cluster groups and five sub clusters. The majority of landscape character areas tended to constitute separate subclusters, while character types appeared to form large groups of clusters in which recognisable land-use patterns were the main activity. According to the cluster dendrogram, it was possible to interpret spatial linkages between the clusters of character areas and types and to delineate geographic classification of the main landscapes in Side. Scaling relations for LCA in a pattern-process-product framework provided an explicit understanding of the data layers in landscape classification and where the clustering can function. Biophysical characteristics comprised the pattern of the landscape, while visual characteristics demonstrated the condition of the landscape as a product. The process depends upon transformation between the objective and the subjective as a link between pattern and product. Further steps would be to conduct semistructured surveys to assess local perceptions and preferences about landscape characters for landscape quality objectives.     

How landscapes change: Integration of spatial patterns and human processes in temperate landscapes of southern Chile

A comprehensive understanding of the patterns that occur as human processes transform landscapes is necessary for sustainable development. We provide new evidence on how landscapes change by analysing the spatial patterns of human processes in three forest landscapes in southern Chile at different states of alteration (40%-90% of old-growth forest loss). Three phases of landscape alteration are distinguished. In Phase I (40%-65% of old-growth forest loss), deforestation rates are < 1% yr⁻¹, forests are increasingly degraded, and clearance for pastureland is concentrated on deeper soils. In Phase II (65%-80%), deforestation reaches its maximum rate of 1-1.5% yr⁻¹, with clearance for pastureland being the main human process, creating a landscape dominated by disturbed forest and shrubland. In this phase, clearance for pastureland is the primary driver of change, with pastures expanding onto poorer soils in more spatially aggregated patterns. In Phase III (80%-90%), deforestation rates are again relatively low (<1% yr⁻¹) and forest regrowth is observed on marginal lands. During this phase, clearance is the dominant process and pastureland is the main land cover. As a forest landscape is transformed, the extent and intensity of human processes vary according to the existing state of landscape alteration, resulting in distinctive landscape patterns in each phase. A relationship between spatial patterns of land cover and human-related processes has been identified along the gradient of landscape alteration. This integrative framework can potentially provide insights into the patterns and processes of dynamic landscapes in other areas subjected to intensifying human use.     

洞庭湖生态系统最终服务价值评估

生态系统最终服务指生态系统直接提供给人类的,由人类直接享用、消费、使用的生态系统服务,目前生态系统服务评估多将最终服务与中间服务混淆,造成重复计算。以洞庭湖为例,建立洞庭湖生态系统最终产品与服务评估指标体系,并综合运用市场价值法、替代工程法和旅行费用法评估洞庭湖提供给人类的生态经济价值。结果表明:洞庭湖生态系统服务总价值为2 154.22×108元/a,其中洪水调蓄和气候调节占总价值的88.69%,是洞庭湖的主导生态系统服务。评价的10项生态系统最终服务按价值量排序,依次为调蓄洪水气候调节淡水产品水资源供给原材料生产释氧休闲旅游固碳水质净化内陆航运。评估结果比较全面地反映了洞庭湖对人类福祉的直接贡献,不仅能提高公众和管理部门对洞庭湖生态系统服务的认知,也为管理部门管理洞庭湖提供了重要方向。     

湿地景观变化过程与累积环境效应研究进展

湿地在流域中处于水陆交错的特殊过渡区域,是地表重要的景观覆盖类型和生态系统。湿地具有独特的水文、土壤和植被特征,在维护区域/流域生态平衡和环境稳定方面发挥巨大作用。湿地景观变化过程主要表现为景观格局和过程在时间和空间尺度上的相互作用过程。该过程对系统的能量流动、物质循环以及物种迁移产生作用,对地理环境也产生巨大环境效应。湿地景观变化与土地利用/覆盖变化紧密相关,与人类活动影响息息相联。至今,人类已把天然的湿地景观格局改变为受人类支配的土地利用格局。自然湿地景观格局的变化过程对湿地生态系统以及其他系统的生物多样性、初级生产力产生显著影响,对局地、区域及全球气候环境、水文环境、生物多样性等方面产生显著而深刻的影响。湿地景观变化是全球变化研究的重要内容,尤其对认识全球气候变化、土地利用/覆盖变化和生物多样性变化的区域响应具有重大意义。     

新疆天山自然遗产地景观格局动态演化及其生态健康评价

喀拉峻-库尔德宁区域是新疆天山自然遗产地的重要组成部分,其生态健康状况将影响该自然遗产地的突出普遍价值。目前从景观生态学角度,通过景观格局动态演化过程反映自然遗产地生态健康研究较少。本研究以喀拉峻-库尔德宁区域为例,基于多源遥感影像,提取景观信息进行定性与定量分析,并结合景观格局指数,从景观动态特征、类型水平和景观水平分析景观格局演化特征,评价景观健康状况,形成自然遗产地景观数据的获取方法,探索景观格局与生态过程的关系,为相关研究提供借鉴。结果显示：裸地增加,冰雪、针阔混交林等景观减少;类型水平上,针阔混交林受人为干扰严重,中和低覆盖度草地呈破碎化;景观水平上,景观聚集度、连通性、分形状况稳定,景观多样性提升后维持稳定;总体景观生态健康,突出普遍价值（OUV）维持稳定,但对针阔混交林需要进行重点保护。结果可为研究区综合管理和生态健康分析提供有效数据。     

景观格局在沙漠化研究中的作用

应用景观生态学中格局分析的一些方法对４种典型沙漠化土地景观进行了分析,研究结果表明：景观和景观中斑块的格局通过影响边界长度和组合状况,进而影响沙漠化过程中的各种生物学和生态学过程。其中,分维数的变化可以反映景观和斑块格局的变化,分维数越大格局越复杂,两者关系呈正相关;修改分维数可以反映景观格局的多样性和景观中斑块之间的相邻性,两者关系也呈正相关;沙漠化土地景观格局的数量化分析和描述,为研究沙漠化过程和景观格局的相互关系奠定了基础。同时还指出了景观格局在沙漠化危害程度判定中有重要作用。     

滇西北生态脆弱区土地利用变化及其生态效应 ——以云南省永胜县为例

土地利用/土地覆被变化及其生态环境效应研究是当前地理学全球变化研究的核心内容,而生态系统服务功能则是生态学、生态经济学研究的热点问题。作者利用滇西北生态脆弱区--永胜县1988年、1994年和1999年的TM遥感影像,采用景观生态学的空间格局指数分析研究区近10年来的土地利用动态变化特征,并以生态系统服务功能衡量相应土地利用类型的相对生态价值,评价区域土地利用/土地覆被变化的生态效应,尝试将二者有机结合起来。研究表明,全县景观总体构成表现为景观破碎度较高,斑块数目较多;林地和未利用地一直占很大比重,林地的不断增加与未利用地的迅速减少是研究时段内土地利用变化的突出特征;研究时段内全县土地利用变化带来了较好的生态效应,土地利用生态效益持续提高,并表现出了较大的空间差异。     

GIS与RS技术支持下的北京西北地区景观格局优化

在区域尺度上以城市化过程为特征的土地利用活动对景观功能的稳定和景观结构的差异性有着深刻的影响。选择北京西北地区为研究区域, 应用RS 与GIS 技术, 对1989 年、1996 年、2005 年三期LANDSAT TM 图像进行解译判读, 深入分析研究区景观格局时空变化特征, 发现城市扩展造成了生态绿地破碎化、景观连通性降低及景观单一等一系列问题。在此基础上, 本研究以景观流运行受距离、障碍等因素影响原理作为出发点, 采用累积耗费距离模型, 结合景观组分的生态系统服务功能价值和空间作用, 研究了北京西北地区景观结构紧密性和生态功能空间差异, 进而构建源地、生态廊道和生态节点等景观组分来加强生态网络的空间联系, 最后提出本研究区域的景观格局优化方案。该研究方法及结果对北京地区景观生态规划和建设具有重要的理论依据和和参考价值。     

Planning restoration in human-modified landscapes: New insights linking different scales

The transformation of tropical ecosystems by humans have resulted in forest loss, which, in turn, have caused negative impacts on biodiversity and the provisioning of ecosystem services. There is an urgent need to plan the restoration of these human-modified landscapes, using methodological approaches that consider key processes occurring at different spatial scales while engage local community participation, offering them the best possibilities of tangible benefits. In this study, was evaluated the landscape spatial pattern and local conservation status of existing forest remnants, showing an analysis of possible restoration scenarios for a human-modified landscape in La Montaña, an indigenous region in southwestern Mexico. Therefore, landscape and local scale approaches were linked to identify specific landscape elements where efforts to improve connectivity must be concentrated. Also, this approach allowed finding a set of species from reference sites that showed the best socioecological characteristics to be used in different restoration strategies. As expected, La Montaña region showed a spatial pattern typical of highly human-modified landscapes, i.e., several small (<21 ha) and irregular forest remnants with strong forest edge effects. Furthermore, these small and irregular forest fragments displayed forest structure, diversity and composition characteristics similar to those communities disturbed by selective harvesting or in an early successional phase. However, about 100 of woody species were found inside the fragments, some with important potential to provide ecosystem services. The landscape connectivity was very low, and an analysis of possible restoration scenarios showed that is equally important to restore the productive areas as well as open forest, to recover up to 47% of landscape connectivity. In this sense, it was proposed a productive restoration strategy to enrich open forests and create biodiversity-friendly habitat in agricultural areas, using species with high socioecological potential. We believe that the same approach could be applied to other highly human-modified tropical landscapes with similar socioecological problems.     

Linked to Landscape: Assessing Urbanization in Germany through Landscape and Economic Factors

The ongoing encroachment of urban land into natural landscapes has resulted in the degradation of ecosystems throughout Europe. Understanding why the share of urban land has increased is important for managing urban growth and maintaining ecosystem services. We estimate a model of landscape change that integrates geospatial and socioeconomic data in a spatial autoregressive model to explain the variance in urban growth observed in Germany between 2000 and 2006. In doing so, we test several determinants of urbanization identified by theoretical frameworks from landscape ecology and economics, including landscape pattern and transit infrastructure. The results show that despite planning guidelines and policies to promote dense development, urban growth has been extensive. Regions with a high degree of fragmented land and the prevalence of environmental amenities are characterized by particularly strong growth, pointing to challenges in crafting landscape policies that balance economic development with environmental conservation.     

基于生态系统服务的中国陆地生态风险评价

传统的生态风险评价主要依据是点源性威胁、区域景观格局变化等生态实体特征指标,忽略了与实体功能属性密切相关的人类福祉因素。将生态系统服务纳入生态风险评价体系是一个新的研究思路。本文运用GIS和遥感技术重构了中国陆地生态系统服务的空间图谱,采用生态风险分析模型给出了基于生态系统服务的中国陆地生态风险格局的定量描述和空间分布,划定了不同置信水平下的生态风险管控优先区。结果表明：① 2000-2010年中国陆地生态系统年均总生态系统服务指数取值在0~2.17之间,年际间呈现小幅波动趋势,年平均总指数在0.30~0.57之间变化,其中24.7%的区域显著增加,主要分布在台湾、云贵高原及新疆西北内陆区,37.1%的区域显著减少,主要分布在东北、青藏高原及中东部地区;② 不同置信水平下的中国陆地生态系统服务存在的风险损失不尽相同。如当置信水平为90%时,总生态系统服务指数的可能损失比例为24.19%,生态风险指数为0.253。比较置信水平和生态风险指数间的关系,发现当置信水平较高时,生态系统服务蒙受风险的概率相应降低,但此时出现风险时所承受的损失也对应增加;③ 以90%置信水平为例,中国生态地理区划的风险特征表现为：平均生态系统服务风险指数居前列的六位依次为内蒙古高原生态区、华北平原生态区、黄土高原生态区、东北平原生态区、横断山生态区、青藏高原生态区,极重度风险所占区域面积比例依次为55.89%、26.63%、24.35%、20.62%、18.70%、25.12%。     

生态系统服务对国土空间规划体系的理论与实践支撑

空间规划体系改革是推进生态文明建设的重大举措。面向新的国土空间规划体系,如何整合不同空间尺度下的政策,如何协调人类活动并保护生态格局和自然资源,是空间规划的核心问题,亟需吸纳多学科视角和知识加以回答。生态系统服务关联生态系统与人类福祉,是优化国土空间、推动规划决策更加符合生态文明理念的重要工具。本文立足于国土空间规划体系的构建需求,通过文献梳理和理论分析,从多个维度探讨了生态系统服务对空间规划体系构建的支撑作用。首先,对生态系统服务与空间规划价值目标的关联进行了基本判断,明确了生态系统服务不仅是空间规划进行自然资源价值塑造的载体,也是空间规划面向公共福祉的政府选择。其次,针对国家、省级以及市县和乡镇各纵向层级总体规划的功能定位和内容重点,分别剖析了生态系统服务对实现规划的战略性和政策性、协调性和操作性的支撑作用,并从尺度效应视角探讨了其对构建规划协同机制的促进作用。最后,面向“多规合一”的横向衔接需求,提出生态系统服务在培育部门共同价值,协同多元主体利益及改进空间规划技术三方面的重要作用。研究为指导空间规划体系改革提供理论支持和可行路径,丰富深化了生态系统服务在政策制定中的应用。     

黄土丘陵沟壑区村域生态系统服务簇的时空分异及其地形梯度分析

探究村域生态系统服务簇对于厘清黄土丘陵沟壑区农业生态系统复杂特征、从多重服务供给角度提高服务的福祉贡献具有重要意义。论文以黄土丘陵沟壑区米脂县为例,基于高斯混合模型识别2009年和2019年村域生态系统服务簇并分析其时空分布,同时,结合地形分布指数探究服务簇在地形梯度上的分布模式。结果如下： ① 各类服务空间分异明显,且服务之间空间分布差异较大;近10 a间各类服务水平均有不同程度提高,其中调节服务有较大改善,而食物供给与文化服务增幅较小;各类服务空间变化格局存在较大差异,这与土地利用的空间演变关系密切。② 利用高斯混合模型识别4类服务簇,包括农业生产簇、农业美学簇、生态保育簇与城镇休闲簇;各类服务簇空间分异明显,且研究期间存在明显数量和空间转移变化;农业美学簇与生态保育簇是当地主导服务簇,且主导性增强,而农业生产簇与城镇休闲簇比重下降。③ 地形起伏度与服务簇的空间关联密切。随起伏度上升,农业生产簇与农业美学簇呈倒U型,生态保育簇优势分布增加,城镇休闲簇优势分布减弱;研究期间农业生产簇与城镇休闲簇向低起伏度的转移趋势明显,而农业美学簇与生态保育簇趋向于向高起伏度转移。     

Monitoring directions and rates of change in trees outside forests through multitemporal analysis of map sequences

This study explores the potential of historical maps to detect, measure and monitor changes of trees outside forests. The main goal is to assess local-level changes of scattered trees and orchards and their land-use determinants in two areas in Southern Germany between 1901/1905 and 2009. Firstly, overall landscape changes are recorded. Secondly, the spatial-temporal trajectories of scattered trees and their land-use determinants are identified. Thirdly, changes in quantity and fragmentation patterns of traditional orchards are analyzed in their relationship to overall land-cover change. The results confirm major losses in scattered trees, mainly due to urbanization, agricultural intensification, and land abandonment. They further reveal that, while orchards have persisted in total area, they have undergone critical changes toward a simplified landscape structure and loss of the traditional land-use mosaic, which is a characterizing feature of high nature value landscapes. Multi-temporal assessment showed that most trends have been continuous and did not change directions over time, but rather accelerated during periods of rapid change (most dramatically in the 1950-1990 period). The case of orchards and scattered trees illustrates a major problem of cultural landscapes in Europe: Semi-natural landscape features of high nature value are threatened by both intensification and abandonment of land uses. This makes their conservation a potentially costly enterprise, as both opportunity costs for lost alternative land uses and for conservation management costs arise.     

A Review on the Supply-Demand Relationship and Spatial Flows of Ecosystem Services

Research on spatial flow as it relates to the relationship between the supply and demand of ecosystem services supports a significant connection between the supply of ecosystem services and human well-being. Understanding the entire process of the production and flow, as well as the use of ecosystem services, accurately assessing the balance of supply and demand of ecosystem services, and establishing a two-way feedback relationship between supply and demand are vital for the scientific management of the ecosystem and ensuring the sustainable development of regional resources. Based on a large number of relevant publications, this paper comprehensively summarizes the concepts and assessment methods of ecosystem service supply and demand from the perspective of ecosystem service supply and demand, and discusses the impacts of land use and climate change on the temporal and spatial changes of ecosystem services under the background of global change. Then, an analysis of the research progress in the ecosystem services spatial flow indicated that there are still deficiencies in the quantification of cultural services, the dynamics of ecosystem service flow and the driving mechanism of ecosystem services. We also propose that clarifying the driving mechanism and transfer process of ecosystem services, and realizing the mutual conversion between different spatial-temporal scales of ecosystem services, is an important approach for improving the application of ecosystem services research in practice in the future.     

Monitoring land changes in an urban area using satellite imagery,GIS and landscape metrics

Monitoring land changes is an important activity in landscape planning and resource management. In this study, we analyze urban land changes in Atlanta metropolitan area through the combined use of satellite imagery, geographic information systems (GIS), and landscape metrics. The study site is a fast-growing large metropolis in the United States, which contains a mosaic of complex landscape types. Our method consisted of two major components: remote sensing-based land classification and GIS-based land change analysis. Specifically, we adopted a stratified image classification strategy combined with a GIS-based spatial reclassification procedure to map land classes from Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) scenes acquired in two different years. Then, we analyzed the spatial variation and expansion of urban land changes across the entire metropolitan area through post classification change detection and a variety of GIS-based operations. We further examined the size, pattern, and nature of land changes using landscape metrics to examine the size, pattern, and nature of land changes. This study has demonstrated the usefulness of integrating remote sensing with GIS and landscape metrics in land change analysis that allows the characterization of spatial patterns and helps reveal the underlying processes of urban land changes. Our results indicate a transition of urbanization patterns in the study site with a limited outward expansion despite the dominant suburbanization process.