The structure of the lower crust at the Argentine continental margin, South Atlantic at 44°S

It is well established that the Argentine passive margin is of the rifted volcanic margin type. This classification is based primarily on the presence of a buried volcanic wedge beneath the continental slope, manifested by seismic data as a seaward dipping reflector sequence (SDRS). Here, we investigate the deep structure of the Argentine volcanic margin at 44°S over 200 km from the shelf to the deep oceanic Argentine Basin. We use wide-angle reflection/refraction seismic data to perform a joint travel time inversion for refracted and reflected travel times. The resulting P-wave velocity-depth model confirms the typical volcanic margin structure. An underplated body is resolved as distinctive high seismic velocity (v_p up to 7.5 km/s) feature in the lower crust in the prolongation of a seaward dipping reflector sequence. A remarkable result is that a second, isolated body of high seismic velocity (v_p up to 7.3 km/s) exists landward of the first high-velocity feature. The centres of both bodies are 60 km apart. The high-velocity lower-crustal bodies likely were emplaced during transient magmatic–volcanic events accompanying the late rifting and initial drifting stages. The lateral variability of the lower crust may be an expression of a multiple rifting process in the sense that the South Atlantic rift evolved by instantaneous breakup of longer continental margin segments. These segments are confined by transfer zones that acted as rift propagation barriers. A lower-crustal reflector was detected at 3 to 5 km above the modern Moho and probably represents the lower boundary of stretched continental crust. With this finding we suggest that the continent–ocean boundary is situated 70 km more seaward than in previous interpretations.     

Seismic refraction study of the continental edge off the eastern united states

Three long, strike-parallel, seismic-refraction profiles were made on the continental shelf edge, slope and upper rise off New Jersey during 1975. The shelf edge line lies along the axis of the East Coast Magnetic Anomaly (ECMA), while the continental rise line lies 80 km seaward of the shelf edge. Below the unconsolidated sediments (1.7–3.6 km/sec), high-velocity sedimentary rocks (4.2–6.2 km/sec) were found at depths of 2.6–8.2 km and are inferred to be cemented carbonates. Although multichannel seismic-reflection profiles and magnetic depth-to-source data predicted the top of oceanic basement at 6–8 km beneath the shelf edge and 10–11 km beneath the rise, no refracted events occurred as first arrivals from either oceanic basement (layer 2, approximately 5.5 km/ sec) or the upper oceanic crust (layer 3A, approximately 6.8 km/sec). Second arrivals from 10.5 km depth beneath the shelf edge are interpreted as events from a 5.9 km/sec refractor within igneous basement. Other refracted events from either layers 2 or 3A could not be resolved within the complex second arrivals. A well-defined crustal layer with a compressional velocity of 7.1–7.2 km/sec, which can be interpreted as oceanic layer 3B, occurred at 15.8 km depth beneath the shelf and 12.9 km beneath the upper rise. A well-reversed mantle velocity of 8.3 km/sec was measured at 18–22 km depth beneath the upper continental rise. Comparison with other deep-crustal profiles along the continental edge of the Atlantic margin off the United States, specifically in the inner magnetically quiet zone, indicates that the compressional wave velocities and layer depths determined on the U.S.G.S. profiles are very similar to those of nearby profiles. This suggests that the layers are continuous and that the interpretation of the oceanic layer 3B under the shelf edge east of New Jersey implies progradation of the shelf outward over the oceanic crust in that area. This agrees with magnetic anomaly evidence which shows the East Coast Magnetic Anomaly landward of the shelf edge off New Jersey and with previous seismic reflection data which reveal extensive outbuilding of the shelf edge during the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous, probably by carbonate bank-margin accretion.     

Crustal structure beneath the Faroe Islands and the Faroe–Iceland Ridge

We have mapped the transition from the continental Faroe block (the Faroe Islands and surrounding shelf) to the thickened oceanic crust of the Faroe–Iceland Ridge in the North Atlantic using the results of a detailed sea-to-land seismic profile with wide-angle to normal-incidence recordings of explosive and airgun shots fired at sea along the Faroe–Iceland Ridge. Interpretation of all available seismic and gravity data indicates that this aseismic ridge is composed of 30±3-km-thick oceanic crust, with a gradual transition to ancient continental crust from 100 to 40 km northwest of the Faroe Islands, close to the shelf edge. This confirms that the crust beneath the Faroe Islands, which may be up to 46 km thick, comprises continental material in agreement with previous seismic and geochemical results. Results suggest that the upper 5.2±0.7 km of the Faroe crust consists of Tertiary basalts generated during continental breakup, overlying the continental crust beneath. The lower crust, where seismic constraint is poor, may exhibit high seismic velocities (7.1–7.6 km s⁻¹) which we attribute to underplating or intrusion by mafic melts during continental breakup in the early Tertiary.     

Lithospheric transition from the Variscan Iberian Massif to the Jurassic oceanic crust of the Central Atlantic

A 1000-km-long lithospheric transect running from the Variscan Iberian Massif (VIM) to the oceanic domain of the Northwest African margin is investigated. The main goal of the study is to image the lateral changes in crustal and lithospheric structure from a complete section of an old and stable orogenic belt—the Variscan Iberian Massif—to the adjacent Jurassic passive margin of SW Iberia, and across the transpressive and seismically active Africa–Eurasia plate boundary. The modelling approach incorporates available seismic data and integrates elevation, gravity, geoid and heat flow data under the assumptions of thermal steady state and local isostasy. The results show that the Variscan Iberian crust has a roughly constant thickness of 30 km, in opposition to previous works that propose a prominent thickening beneath the South Portuguese Zone (SPZ). The three layers forming the Variscan crust show noticeable thickness variations along the profile. The upper crust thins from central Iberia (about 20 km thick) to the Ossa Morena Zone (OMZ) and the NE region of the South Portuguese Zone where locally the thickness of the upper crust is <8 km. Conversely, there is a clear thickening of the middle crust (up to 17 km thick) under the Ossa Morena Zone, whereas the thickness of the lower crust remains quite constant (6 km). Under the margin, the thinning of the continental crust is quite gentle and occurs over distances of 200 km, resembling the crustal attitude observed further north along the West Iberian margins. In the oceanic domain, there is a 160-km-wide Ocean Transition Zone located between the thinned continental crust of the continental shelf and slope and the true oceanic crust of the Seine Abyssal Plain. The total lithospheric thickness varies from about 120 km at the ends of the model profile to less than 100 km below the Ossa Morena and the South Portuguese zones. An outstanding result is the mass deficit at deep lithospheric mantle levels required to fit the observed geoid, gravity and elevation over the Ossa Morena and South Portuguese zones. Such mass deficit can be interpreted either as a lithospheric thinning of 20–25 km or as an anomalous density reduction of 25 kg m⁻³ affecting the lower lithospheric levels. Whereas the first hypothesis is consistent with a possible thermal anomaly related to recent geodynamics affecting the nearby Betic–Rif arc, the second is consistent with mantle depletion related to ancient magmatic episodes that occurred during the Hercynian orogeny.     

Moho depth variation beneath southwestern Japan revealed from the velocity structure based on receiver function inversion

The Philippine Sea plate is subducting under the Eurasian plate beneath the Chugoku-Shikoku region, southwestern Japan. We have constructed depth contours for the continental and oceanic Mohos derived from the velocity structure based on receiver function inversion. Receiver functions were calculated using teleseismic waveforms recorded by the high-density seismograph network in southwestern Japan. In order to determine crustal velocity structure, we first improved the linearized time-domain receiver function inversion method. The continental Moho is relatively shallow ( 30 km) at the coastline of the Sea of Japan and at the Seto Inland Sea, and becomes deeper–greater than 40 km–around 35°N and 133.8°E. Near the Seto Inland Sea, a low-velocity layer of thickness 10 km lies under the continental Moho. This low-velocity layer corresponds to the subducting oceanic crust of the Philippine Sea plate. The oceanic Moho continues to descend from south to northwest and exhibits complicated ridge and valley features. The oceanic Moho runs around 25 km beneath the Pacific coast and 45 km beneath the Seto Inland Sea, and it extends to at least to 34.5°N. The depth variation of the Moho discontinuities is in good qualitative agreement with the concept of isostasy. From the configurations of both the continental and oceanic Mohos, we demonstrate that the continental lower crust and the subducting oceanic crust overlap beneath the southern and central part of Shikoku and that a mantle wedge may exist beneath the western and eastern part of Shikoku. The southern edge of the overlapping region coincides with the downdip limit of the slip area of a megathrust earthquake.     

Topography of the crust–mantle boundary beneath the Black Sea Basin

A map of Moho depth for the Black Sea and its immediate surroundings has been inferred from 3-D gravity modelling, and crustal structure has been clarified. Beneath the basin centre, the thickness of the crystalline layer is similar to that of the oceanic crust. In the Western and Eastern Black Sea basins, the Moho shallows to 19 and 22 km, respectively. Below the Tuapse Trough (northeastern margin, adjacent to the Caucasus orogen), the base of the crust is at 28 km, whereas in the Sorokin Trough, it is as deep as 34 km. The base of the crust lies at 29 and 33 km depths respectively below the southern and northern parts of the Mid-Black Sea Ridge. For the Shatsky Ridge (between the Tuapse Trough and the Eastern Black Sea Basin), the Moho plunges from the northwest (33 km) to the southeast (40 km). The Arkhangelsky Ridge (south of the Eastern Black Sea Basin) is characterised by a Moho depth of 32 km. The crust beneath these ridges is of continental type.     

The gravity field of the U.S. Atlantic continental margin

Approximately 39,000 km of marine gravity data collected during 1975 and 1976 have been integrated with U.S. Navy and other available data over the U.S. Atlantic continental margin between Florida and Maine to obtain a 10 mgal contour free-air gravity anomaly map. A maximum typically ranging from 0 to +70 mgal occurs along the edge of the shelf and Blake Plateau, while a minimum typically ranging from −20 to −80 mgal occurs along the base of the continental slope, except for a −140 mgal minimum at the base of the Blake Escarpment. Although the maximum and minimum free-air gravity values are strongly influenced by continental slope topography and by the abrupt change in crustal thickness across the margin, the peaks and troughs in the anomalies terminate abruptly at discrete transverse zones along the margin. These zones appear to mark major NW—SE fractures in the subsided continental margin and adjacent deep ocean basin, which separate the margin into a series of segmented basins and platforms. Rapid differential subsidence of crustal blocks on either side of these fractures during the early stages after separation of North America and Africa (Jurassic and Early Cretaceous) is inferred to be the cause of most of the gravity transitions along the length of margin. The major transverse zones are southeast of Charleston, east of Cape Hatteras, near Norfolk Canyon, off Delaware Bay, just south of Hudson Canyon and south of Cape Cod.Local Airy isostatic anomaly profiles (two-dimensional, without sediment corrections) were computed along eight multichannel seismic profiles. The isostatic anomaly values over major basins beneath the shelf and rise are generally between −10 and −30 mgal while those over the platform areas are typically 0 to +20 mgal. While a few isostatic anomaly profiles show local 10–20 mgal increases seaward of the East Coast Magnetic Anomaly (ECMA: inferred to mark the ocean-continent boundary), the lack of a consistent correlation indicates that the relationship of isostatic gravity anomalies to the magnetic anomalies and the ocean—continent transition is variable.Two-dimensional gravity models have been computed for two profiles off Cape Cod, Massachusetts and Cape May, New Jersey, where excellent reflection, refraction and magnetic control appear to define 10 and 12 km deep sedimentary basins beneath the shelf, respectively and 10 km deep basins beneath the rise. The basins are separated by a 6–8 km deep basement ridge which underlies the ECMA and appears to mark the landward edge of oceanic crust. The gravity models suggest that the oceanic crust is between 11 and 18 km thick beneath the ECMA, but decreases to a thickness of less than 8 km within the first 20–90 km to the southeast. In both profiles, the derived crustal thickness variations support the interpretation that the ECMA occurs over the ocean-continent boundary. The crust underlying the sedimentary cover appears to be 12 to 15 km thick on the landward side of the ECMA and gradually thickens to normal continental values of greater than 25 km within the first 60 to 110 km to the northwest. Multichannel seismic profiles across platform areas, such as Cape Hatteras and Cape Cod, indicate the ocean-continent transition zones there are much narrower than profiles across major sedimentary basins, such as the one off New Jersey.     

Fission track and fault kinematics analyses for new insight into the Late Cenozoic tectonic regime changes in West-Central Sulawesi (Indonesia)

A 3-D density model for the Cretan and Libyan Seas and Crete was developed by gravity modelling constrained by five 2-D seismic lines. Velocity values of these cross-sections were used to obtain the initial densities using the Nafe–Drake and Birch empirical functions for the sediments, the crust and the upper mantle. The crust outside the Cretan Arc is 18 to 24 km thick, including 10 to 14 km thick sediments. The crust below central Crete at its thickest section, has values between 32 and 34 km, consisting of continental crust of the Aegean microplate, which is thickened by the subducted oceanic plate below the Cretan Arc. The oceanic lithosphere is decoupled from the continental along a NW–SE striking front between eastern Crete and the Island of Kythera south of Peloponnese. It plunges steeply below the southern Aegean Sea and is probably associated with the present volcanic activity of the southern Aegean Sea in agreement with published seismological observations of intermediate seismicity. Low density and velocity upper mantle below the Cretan Sea with ρ  3.25 × 10³ kg/m³ and V_p velocity of compressional waves around 7.7 km/s, which are also in agreement with observed high heat flow density values, point out at the mobilization of the upper mantle material here. Outside the Hellenic Arc the upper mantle density and velocity are ρ ≥ 3.32 × 10³ kg/m³ and V_p = 8.0 km/s, respectively. The crust below the Cretan Sea is thin continental of 15 to 20 km thickness, including 3 to 4 km of sediments. Thick accumulations of sediments, located to the SSW and SSE of Crete, are separated by a block of continental crust extended for more than 100 km south of Central Crete. These deep sedimentary basins are located on the oceanic crust backstopped by the continental crust of the Aegean microplate. The stretched continental margin of Africa, north of Cyrenaica, and the abruptly terminated continental Aegean microplate south of Crete are separated by oceanic lithosphere of only 60 to 80 km width at their closest proximity. To the east and west, the areas are floored by oceanic lithosphere, which rapidly widens towards the Herodotus Abyssal plain and the deep Ionian Basin of the central Mediterranean Sea. Crustal shortening between the continental margins of the Aegean microplate and Cyrenaica of North Africa influence the deformation of the sediments of the Mediterranean Ridge that has been divided in an internal and external zone. The continental margin of Cyrenaica extends for more than 80 km to the north of the African coast in form of a huge ramp, while that of the Aegean microplate is abruptly truncated by very steep fractures towards the Mediterranean Ridge. Changes in the deformation style of the sediments express differences of the tectonic processes that control them. That is, subduction to the northeast and crustal subsidence to the south of Crete. Strike-slip movement between Crete and Libya is required by seismological observations.     

Crustal transect from the North Atlantic Knipovich Ridge to the Svalbard Margin west of Hornsund

The crustal structure along a 312 km transect, stretching from the axial mountains of the North Atlantic Knipovich Ridge to the continental shelf of Svalbard, has been obtained using seismic reflection data and wide angle OBS data. The resulting seismic V_p and V_s models are further constrained by a 2-D-gravity model. The principal objective of this study is to describe and resolve the physical and compositional properties of the crust in order to understand the processes and creation of oceanic crust in this extremely slow-spreading counterpart of the North Atlantic Ridge Systems. V_p is estimated to be 3.50–6.05 km/s for the upper oceanic crust (oceanic layer 2), with a marked increase away from the ridge. The measured V_p of 6.55–6.95 km/s for oceanic layer 3A and 7.10–7.25 km/s for layer 3B, both with a V_p/V_s ratio of 1.81, except for slightly higher values at the ridge axis, does not allow a clear distinction between gabbro and mantle-derived peridotite (10–40% serpentized). The thickness of the oceanic crust varies a lot along the transect from the minimum of 5.6 km to a maximum of 8.1 km. The mean thickness of 6.7 km for the oceanic crust is well above the average thickness for slow-spreading ridges (<10 mm/year half-spreading rate). The areas of increased thickness could be explained by large magma production-rates found in the zones of axial highs at the ridge axis, which also have generated the off-axial highs adjacent the ridge. We suggest that these axial and off-axial highs along the ridge control the lithological composition of the oceanic crust. This approach suggests normal gabbroic oceanic crust to be found in the areas bound by the active magma segments (the axial and off-axial highs) and mantle-derived peridotite outside these zone.     

Structure and tectonic evolution of the Southern Eurasia Basin, Arctic Ocean

Multichannel seismic reflection data acquired by Marine Arctic Geological Expedition (MAGE) of Murmansk, Russia in 1990 provide the first view of the geological structure of the Arctic region between 77–80°N and 115–133°E, where the Eurasia Basin of the Arctic Ocean adjoins the passive-transform continental margin of the Laptev Sea. South of 80°N, the oceanic basement of the Eurasia Basin and continental basement of the Laptev Sea outer margin are covered by 1.5 to 8 km of sediments. Two structural sequences are distinguished in the sedimentary cover within the Laptev Sea outer margin and at the continent/ocean crust transition: the lower rift sequence, including mostly Upper Cretaceous to Lower Paleocene deposits, and the upper post-rift sequence, consisting of Cenozoic sediments. In the adjoining Eurasia Basin of the Arctic Ocean, the Cenozoic post-rift sequence consists of a few sedimentary successions deposited by several submarine fans. Based on the multichannel seismic reflection data, the structural pattern was determined and an isopach map of the sedimentary cover and tectonic zoning map were constructed. A location of the continent/ocean crust transition is tentatively defined. A buried continuation of the mid-ocean Gakkel Ridge is also detected. This study suggests that south of 78.5°N there was the cessation in the tectonic activity of the Gakkel Ridge Rift from 33–30 until 3–1 Ma and there was no sea-floor spreading in the southernmost part of the Eurasia Basin during the last 30–33 m.y. South of 78.5°N all oceanic crust of the Eurasia Basin near the continental margin of the Laptev Sea was formed from 56 to 33–30 Ma.     

Crustal structure of the Levant Basin, eastern Mediterranean

A seismic refraction/wide-angle reflection experiment was undertaken in the Levant Basin, eastern Mediterranean. Two roughly east–west profiles extend from the continental shelf of Israel toward the Levant Basin. The northern profile crosses the Eratosthenes Seamount and the southern profile crosses several distinct magnetic anomalies. The marine operation used 16 ocean bottom seismometers deployed along the profiles with an air gun array and explosive charges as energy sources. The results of this study strongly suggest the existence of oceanic crust under portions of the Levant Basin and continental crust under the Eratosthenes Seamount. The seismic refraction data also indicate a large sedimentary sequence, 10–14 km thick, in the Levant Basin and below the Levant continental margin. Assuming the crust is of Cretaceous age, this gives a fairly high sedimentation rate. The sequence can be divided into several units. A prominent unit is the 4.2 km/s layer, which is probably composed of the Messinian evaporites. Overlying the evaporitic layer are layers composed of Plio–Pleistocene sediments, whose velocity is 2.0 km/s. The refraction profiles and gravity and magnetic models indicate that a transition from a two layer continental to a single-layer oceanic crust takes place along the Levant margin. The transition in the structure along the southern profile is located beyond the continental margin and it is quite gradual. The northern profile, north of the Carmel structure, presents a different structure. The continental crust is much thinner there and the transition in the crustal structure is more rapid. The crustal thinning begins under western Galilee and terminates at the continental slope. The results of the present study indicate that the Levant Basin is composed of distinct crustal units and that the Levant continental margin is divided into at least two provinces of different crustal structure.     

Three-dimensional P- and S-wave velocity structures beneath the Japan Islands obtained by high-density seismic stations by seismic tomography

We construct fine-scale 3D P- and S-wave velocity structures of the crust and upper mantle beneath the whole Japan Islands with a unified resolution, where the Pacific (PAC) and Philippine Sea (PHS) plates subduct beneath the Eurasian (EUR) plate. We can detect the low-velocity (low-V) oceanic crust of the PAC and PHS plates at their uppermost part beneath almost all the Japan Islands. The depth limit of the imaged oceanic crust varies with the regions. High-V_P/V_S zones are widely distributed in the lower crust especially beneath the volcanic front, and the high strain rate zones are located at the edge of the extremely high-V_P/V_S zone; however, V_P/V_S at the top of the mantle wedge is not so high. Beneath northern Japan, we can image the high-V subducting PAC plate using the tomographic method without any assumption of velocity discontinuities. We also imaged the heterogeneous structure in the PAC plate, such as the low-V zone considered as the old seamount or the highly seismic zone within the double seismic zone where the seismic fault ruptured by the earthquake connects the upper and lower layer of the double seismic zone. Beneath central Japan, thrust-type small repeating earthquakes occur at the boundary between the EUR and PHS plates and are located at the upper part of the low-V layer that is considered to be the oceanic crust of the PHS plate. In addition to the low-V oceanic crust, the subducting high-V PAC plate is clearly imaged to depths of approximately 250 km and the subducting high-V PHS zone to depths of approximately 180 km is considered to be the PHS plate. Beneath southwestern Japan, the iso-depth lines of the Moho discontinuity in the PHS plate derived by the receiver function method divide the upper low-V layer and lower high-V layer of our model at depths of 30–50 km. Beneath Kyushu, the steeply subducting PHS plate is clearly imaged to depths of approximately 250 km with high velocities. The high-V_P/V_S zone is considered as the lower crust of the EUR plate or the oceanic crust of the PHS plate at depths of 25–35 km and the partially serpentinized mantle wedge of the EUR plate at depths of 30–45 km beneath southwestern Japan. The deep low-frequency nonvolcanic tremors occur at all parts of the high-V_P/V_S zone—within the zone, the seaward side, and the landward side where the PHS plate encounters the mantle wedge of the EUR plate. We prove that we can objectively obtain the fine-scale 3D structure with simple constraints such as only 1D initial velocity model with no velocity discontinuity.     

Reworking of the Gangdese magmatic arc,southeastern Tibet: post‐collisional metamorphism and anatexis

The Gangdese magmatic arc, southeastern Tibet, was built by mantle‐derived magma accretion and juvenile crustal growth during the Mesozoic to Early Cenozoic northward subduction of the Neo‐Tethyan oceanic slab beneath the Eurasian continent. The petrological and geochronological data reveal that the lower crust of the southeastern Gangdese arc experienced Oligocene reworking by metamorphism, anatexis and magmatism after the India and Asia collision. The post‐collisional metamorphic and migmatitic rocks formed at 34–26 Ma and 28–26 Ma respectively. Meta‐granitoids have protolith ages of 65–38 Ma. Inherited detrital zircon from metasedimentary rocks has highly variable ages ranging from 2708 to 37 Ma. These rocks underwent post‐collisional amphibolite facies metamorphism and coeval anatexis under P–T conditions of ~710–760 °C and ~12 kbar with geothermal gradients of 18–20 °C km ^{? 1}, indicating a distinct crustal thickening process. Crustal shortening, thickening and possible subduction erosion due to the continental collision and ongoing convergence resulted in high‐P metamorphic and anatectic reworking of the magmatic and sedimentary rocks of the deep Gangdese arc. This study provides a typical example of the reworking of juvenile and ancient continental crust during active collisional orogeny.     

Age of emplacement of the schistes lustres nappe, Alpine Corsica

Structural studies in the Schistes lustrés nappe west of Bastia, Corsica, demonstrate the existence of a tectonic mélange in which km-scale blocks and smaller lozenges of basement granite gneiss, thick-layered marble and dismembered Mesozoic ophiolite are enveloped in a matrix of calc-schist and blueschist. The main (S₁) foliation is developed in both block and matrix and is concordant with lithologie contacts. Blueschist facies metamorphism was syn-kinematic with the main foliation.The S₁ in the Schistes lustrés was refolded about ENE-WSW trending, tight similar and monoclinal fold axes (F₂). These second folds verge to the southeast and show km-scale axial culminations and depressions that are reflected by topography and residual Bouguer gravity anomalies.Parautochthonous Hercynian basement (Tenda-Corte complex) beneath the western edge of the Schistes lustrés nappe contains a mylonitic foliation which is concordant with the main foliation in the Schistes lustrés. The intensity of deformation in the basement decreases away from this contact and undeformed granites are found 3 km to the west.Whole rock samples of the deformed basement immediately beneath the Schistes lustrés yield an Rb-Sr isochron diagram (n = 4) which has an age of 105 ± 8 Ma (1σ) and initial ratio of 0.7228 ± 0.0005 (1σ). This result is more precise than our preliminary age and initial ratio estimate of 98 ± 14 and 0.7296 ± 0.0068, respectively (Cohen et al., 1979). It is similar to a recently published mid-Cretaceous (90 Ma) ⁴⁰Ar-³⁹Ar age from glaucophane mineral separates. We interpret this date as the age of a metamorphic overprint related to the emplacement of the Schistes lustrés nappe and associated ophiolites, the formation of the main foliation and blueschist facies metamorphism.These results indicate that the mid-Cretaceous blueschist facies metamorphism documented in the Western Alps formerly extended farther south of its present terminus. The data are consistent with mid-Cretaceous obduction of Tethyan oceanic crust onto the present-day eastern continental margin of Corsica. We postulate that during Eocene—early Oligocene time a polarity flip occurred outboard of the obducted crust and a new, southfacing subduction zone developed. This change in polarity was responsible for the development of southeast-vergent second folds and for the resetting of ⁴⁰Ar−³⁹Ar and K-Ar geochronologic clocks described in the literature.     

论南沙海槽的地壳性质

根据海上地球物理测量,对四条剖面的重力和地震剖面资料进行联合正反演推算,结合已发表的国内外地质、地球物理资料对南沙海槽的地壳厚度及性质进行了分析。结果表明,南沙海槽的地壳为一个减薄的陆壳,从南沙微陆块向婆罗洲方向厚度减薄,具有类似大陆边缘从陆壳向洋壳过渡部位的地壳构造特征。顺着海槽的走向,地壳厚度变化趋势是从东北向西南变薄。从构造演化的角度分析,南沙海槽是古南海洋陆交界的边缘,由于古南海的闭合及晚白垩世以后婆罗洲逆时针方向旋转,海槽的大部分是陆壳,其西南端可能有残留的洋壳。     

Two-dimensional numerical modeling of tectonic and metamorphic histories at active continental margins

The evolution of an active continental margin is simulated in two dimensions, using a finite difference thermomechanical code with half-staggered grid and marker-in-cell technique. The effect of mechanical properties, changing as a function of P and T, assigned to different crustal layers and mantle materials in the simple starting structure is discussed for a set of numerical models. For each model, representative P–T paths are displayed for selected markers. Both the intensity of subduction erosion and the size of the frontal accretionary wedge are strongly dependent on the rheology chosen for the overriding continental crust. Tectonically eroded upper and lower continental crust is carried down to form a broad orogenic wedge, intermingling with detached oceanic crust and sediments from the subducted plate and hydrated mantle material from the overriding plate. A small portion of the continental crust and trench sediments is carried further down into a narrow subduction channel, intermingling with oceanic crust and hydrated mantle material, and to some extent extruded to the rear of the orogenic wedge underplating the overriding continental crust. The exhumation rates for (ultra)high pressure rocks can exceed subduction and burial rates by a factor of 1.5–3, when forced return flow in the hanging wall portion of the self-organizing subduction channel is focused. The simulations suggest that a minimum rate of subduction is required for the formation of a subduction channel, because buoyancy forces may outweigh drag forces for slow subduction. For a weak upper continental crust, simulated by a high pore pressure coefficient in the brittle regime, the orogenic wedge and megascale melange reach a mid- to upper-crustal position within 10–20 Myr (after 400–600 km of subduction). For a strong upper crust, a continental lid persists over the entire time span covered by the simulation. The structural pattern is similar in all cases, with four zones from trench toward arc: (a) an accretionary complex of low-grade metamorphic sedimentary material; (b) a wedge of mainly continental crust, with medium-grade HP metamorphic overprint, wound up and stretched in a marble cake fashion to appear as nappes with alternating upper and lower crustal provenance, and minor oceanic or hydrated mantle interleaved material; (c) a megascale melange composed of high-pressure and ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic oceanic and continental crust, and hydrated mantle, all extruded from the subduction channel; (d) zone represents the upward tilted frontal part of the remaining upper plate lid in the case of a weak upper crust. The shape of the P–T paths and the time scales correspond to those typically recorded in orogenic belts. Comparison of the numerical results with the European Alps reveals some similarities in their gross structural and metamorphic pattern exposed after collision. A similar structure may be developed at depth beneath the forearc of the Andes, where the importance of subduction erosion is well documented, and where a strong upper crust forms a stable lid.     

Deep Structure and Dynamics of Passive Continental Margin from Shelf to Ocean of the Northern South China Sea

To study the deep dynamic mechanism leading to the difference in rifting pattern and basin structure from shelf to oceanic basin in passive continental margin,we constructed long geological sections across the shelf,slope and oceanic basin using new seismic data.Integrated gravity-magnetic inversion and interpretation of these sections were made with the advanced dissection method.Results show that the basement composition changes from intermediate-acid intrusive rocks in the sheff to intermediate-basic rocks in the slope.The Moho surface shoals gradually from 31 km in the sheff to 22.5 km in the uplift and then 19 km in the slope and finally to 13 km in the oceanic basin.The crust thickness also decreases gradually from 30 km in the northern fault belt to 9 km in the oceanic basin.The crustal stretching factor increases from the shelf toward the oceanic basin,with the strongest extension under the sags and the oceanic basin.The intensity of mantle upwelling controlled the style of basin structures from sheff to oceanic basin.In the Zhu 1 depression on the shelf,the crust is nearly normal,the brittle and cold upper crust mainly controlled the fault development;so the combinative grabens with single symmetric graben are characteristic.In the slope,the crust thinned with a large stretching factor,affected by the mantle upwelling.The ductile deformation controlled the faults,so there developed an asymmetric complex graben in the Baiyun (白云) sag.     

The canadian atlantic margin: A passive continental margin encompassing an active past

The continental margins of Atlantic Canada described in this paper show the effects of plate tectonic motions since Precambrian time and thus represent an ideal natural laboratory for geophysical studies and comparisons of ancient and modern margins. The Grenville Province shows vestiges of Helikian sedimentation on a pre-existing continental block beneath which there may have been southeastward late-Helikian subduction resulting in collision between the Grenville block and the continental block comprised of the older shield provinces to the north. The Grenville block was subsequently split in Hadrynian time along an irregular line so that the southeastern edge of the Grenville exhibited a series of promontories and re-entrants similar to those seen at the present Atlantic continental margin of North America. That margin, which had a passive margin history perhaps comparable with that of the present Atlantic margin, was separated by the lapetus ocean from the Avalon zone whose Precambrian volcanism has been attributed both to that associated with an island arc and with intra-cratonic rifting. However, the lapetus ocean appears to have been subducted in early Paleozoic time with a southeastward dip beneath the Avalon zone, leaving exposures of oceanic rocks in place as in Notre Dame Bay, or transported onto Grenville basement as at Bay of Islands.Plate motions proposed for Devonian and Carboniferous time are numerous, but resulted in the welding of the Meguma block to the Avalon zone of New Brunswick and northern Nova Scotia, extensive faulting within Atlantic Canada which can be correlated with contemporaneous European faulting and extensive terrestrial sedimentation within the fault zones. Graben formation, continental sedimentation and basaltic intrusion in the Triassic represent the tensional prelude to the Jurassic opening of the present Atlantic Ocean.This Jurassic opening produced a rifted margin adjacent to Nova Scotia and a transform margin along the southern Grand Banks. The width of the ocean-continent transition across the transform margin (approx. 50 km) is narrower than for the rifted margin (approx. 100 km). The eastern part of the transform margin is associated with a complex Cretaceous (?) volcanic province of seamounts and basement ridges showing evidence of subsidence. The western portion of the transform margin is non-volcanic, adjacent to which lies the 350 km wide Quiet Magnetic Zone floored by oceanic crust.Development of the margin east of Newfoundland was more complicated with continental fragments separated from the shelf by deep water basins underlain by foundered and atypically thin continental crust. Although thin, the crust appears unmodified, the similarities between the crustal sections of the narrow Flemish Pass and the wide Orphan Basin suggesting that the thinning is not simply due to stretching. The Newfoundland Basin shows evidence for two-stage rifting between the Grand Banks and Iberia with both lateral separation and rotation of Spain, leaving a wide zone of transitional crust in the south. The overall pattern of variations in crustal section for the margin east of Newfoundland is comparable with that of the British margin against which it is located on paleogeographical reconstructions.The major sedimentary unconformities on the shelves (such as the Early Cretaceous unconformity on the Grand Banks) reflect uplift accompanying rifting. Tracing of the sedimentary horizons across the shelf edge is complicated by paleocontinental slopes, which separate miogeocline and eugeocline depositional environments. The subsidence of the rifted margins is primarily due to cooling of the lithosphere and to sediment loading. The subsidence due to cooling has been shown to vary linearly with (time) , similar to the depth—age behaviour of oceanic crust. The consequent thermal history of the sediments is favourable for hydrocarbon generation where other factors do not preclude it.     

A composite geologic and seismic profile beneath the southern Rio Grande rift, New Mexico, based on xenolith mineralogy, temperature, and pressure

A complete understanding of the processes of crustal growth and recycling in the earth remains elusive, in part because data on rock composition at depth is scarce. Seismic velocities can provide additional information about lithospheric composition and structure, however, the relationship between velocity and rock type is not unique. The diverse xenolith suite from the Potrillo volcanic field in the southern Rio Grande rift, together with velocity models derived from reflection and refraction data in the area, offers an opportunity to place constraints on the composition of the crust and upper mantle from the surface to depths of  60 km. In this work, we calculate seismic velocities of crustal and mantle xenoliths using modal mineralogy, mineral compositions, pressure and temperature estimates, and elasticity data. The pressure, temperature, and velocity estimates from xenoliths are then combined with sonic logs and stratigraphy estimated from drill cores and surface geology to produce a geologic and velocity profile through the crust and upper mantle. Lower crustal xenoliths include garnet ± sillimanite granulite, two-pyroxene granulite, charnokite, and anorthosite. Metagabbro and amphibolite account for only a small fraction of the lower crustal xenoliths, suggesting that a basaltic underplate at the crust–mantle boundary is not present beneath the southern Rio Grande rift. Abundant mid-crustal felsic to mafic igneous xenoliths, however, suggest that plutonic rocks are common in the middle crust and were intraplated rather than underplated during the Cenozoic. Calculated velocities for garnet granulite are between  6.9 and 8.0 km/s, depending on garnet content. Granulites are strongly foliated and lineated and should be seismically anisotropic. These results suggest that velocities > 7.0 km/s and a layered structure, which are often attributed to underplated mafic rocks, can also be characteristic of alternating garnet-rich and garnet-poor metasedimentary rocks. Because the lower crust appears to be composed largely of metasedimentary granulite, which requires deep burial of upper crustal materials, we suggest the initial construction of the continental crust beneath the Potrillo volcanic field occurred by thickening of supracrustal material in the absence of large scale magmatic accretion. Mantle xenoliths include spinel lherzolite and harzburgite, dunite, and clinopyroxenite. Calculated P-wave velocities for peridotites range from 7.75 km/s to 7.89 km/s, with an average of 7.82 km/s. This velocity is in good agreement with refraction and reflection studies that report P_n velocities of 7.6–7.8 km/s throughout most of the Rio Grande rift. These calculations suggest that the low P_n velocities compared to average uppermost mantle are the result of relatively high temperatures and low pressures due to thin crust, as well as a fertile, Fe-rich, bulk upper mantle composition. Partial melt or metasomatic hydration of the mantle lithosphere are not needed to produce the observed P_n velocities.     

印度陆块新生代两次仰冲事件及其构造驱动机制:论印度洋、特提斯和欧亚板块相互作用

印度陆块与欧亚大陆的碰撞是印度洋扩张和特提斯洋闭合综合作用的结果。本文通过综合分析和研究提出这3个板块的相互作用致使印度陆块发生过2次向北的仰冲:早期(古新世末-始新世初,~57Ma)仰冲受其超高速运动(140mm/yr)的驱动,与特提斯之间产生的速度差致使两者间的边界发生破裂,密度小的印度陆块沿印度洋东经90°海岭和马尔代夫岛链向北仰冲到特提斯洋壳之上,两者的叠加导致印度陆块北缘——特提斯喜马拉雅地壳增厚(~70km)并且沉积了一套造山磨拉石——柳曲砾岩;晚期(渐新世-中新世之交,~25Ma)仰冲发生在碰撞后,由于高喜马拉雅结晶岩系沿主中央冲断带和藏南拆离断裂发生的垂向挤出,位于上盘的特提斯喜马拉雅沉积盖层同时发生重力垮塌,沿大喜马拉雅反冲断裂仰冲到冈底斯岩浆岩带之上并且造成后者的隆升和前陆下陷,其北缘充填了一套造山磨拉石沉积——大竹卡砾岩。这两次构造事件均受印度陆块的快速运动驱动。此外,在印度陆块超高速运动的挤压下,特提斯洋可能在早白垩世之后就停止了扩张,而老的洋壳不是俯冲消减了就是被仰冲的印度陆块掩盖了,这解释了为什么雅鲁藏布江缝合带只存早白垩世蛇绿岩。印度洋内东经90°海岭和马尔代夫岛链构成印度陆块的南东和南西边界,前者呈右行走滑,后者呈左行走滑,两者勾画出印度陆块向北漂移的轨迹。