灌溉诱发型滑坡风险控制关键技术

长期灌溉引起地下水位上升诱发滑坡发生是灌溉诱发型滑坡的基本特征,有效控制地下水位是灌溉诱发型滑坡风险管理的根本措施.通过灌溉量控制、竖向混合孔疏排水、水平疏排水3种排水措施,可以实现灌溉诱发型滑坡的风险控制.采用数值模拟的手段,计算了不同灌溉量下地下水动力场及其对应的台塬斜坡稳定性,模拟了不同布井方式下的竖向混合井疏排地下水的效果,结果表明,灌溉量控制在350×10 4m3/a以下可实现滑坡风险控制,竖向混合排水井间距为40m时可提高单体斜坡的稳定性.统筹考虑各种因素,提出了以控制灌溉量为主,辅以竖向混合孔排水和水平排水的黑方台灌区滑坡的风险控制措施.     

Numerical investigation of small- and medium-diameter drain wells to stabilise deep landslides

The stabilisation of deep landslides is still a challenge for geotechnical engineers, mainly due to the high cost of structural control works that generally lead engineers to opt for drain systems. Unfortunately there are operative difficulties affecting excavation of deep drain trenches in soils dislocated by landslides (especially as regards the provisional support of the excavation walls). Small- and medium-diameter wells are a valid alternative in deep landslides, being less expensive than large-diameter wells equipped with horizontal pipes and simpler to construct than deep trenches. However, no technical procedures for their proper design are reported in the literature: design criteria commonly used in practice are derived from pumping problems and are largely inadequate, being based on Dupuit’s hypothesis that presumes stream lines to be horizontal. This paper presents numerical solutions obtained from three-dimensional seepage and consolidation analyses of a slope drained by small- and medium-diameter wells, arranged according to various positions, showing that the efficiency of the well system decreases as the depth of the landslide slip surface increases. Comparison is also made between well systems and deep trenches occupying the same draining volume in the landslide body, showing that the former attains much greater efficiency than the latter. Non-dimensional abaci for the square grid of wells (which is the most effective arrangement) are reported herein to be used for practical purposes.

     

The Hungtsaiping landslides: from ancient to recent

A large and deep-seated landslide at Hungtsaiping was triggered by the 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake with the magnitude of 7.3. Extensive site investigations for the landslide were conducted including field reconnaissance, geophysical exploration, borehole logs, and laboratory experiments. Thick colluvium was found around the landslide area and indicated the occurrence of a large ancient landslide. The Hungtsaiping area involves at least two large landslides events, an ancient rockslide and the 1999 colluvium slide. With the consideration of a source collapse mass, the two landslides in sequence are reasonably reproduced by the distinct element modeling. The modeling is calibrated by rock mass strength behavior through a procedure with the Hoek?CBrown failure criterion, statistical experimental design, and optimization techniques. The mechanism of the 1999 landslide that cannot be revealed by the underground exploration data alone is clarified. The proposed procedure enables a rational and efficient way to determine micro-parameters for the distinct element modeling of landslides.     

The Stogovce landslide in SW Slovenia triggered during the September 2010 extreme rainfall event

From September 16 to September 20, 2010, a cold weather front went across Slovenia. A heavy 4-day rainfall totaling between 300 and 520 mm caused large floods and triggered numerous rainfall-induced landslides. The damage due to the floods and landslides is estimated over 250 million Euros. One of the largest landslides covering the area of approximately 15 ha was triggered on flysch bedrock, just below a limestone overthrust zone. The sliding material properties, the inclinations of the slope, and the water catchment area indicate that the landslide may transform into a fast moving debris flow. The necessary protective measures were taken to protect inhabitants and the infrastructure against the disaster. The Stogovce landslide is one of the numerous rainfall-induced landslides that have occurred in Slovenia on flysch bedrock in the last 10 years. It proves that landslide risk on flysch territory is increasing. Special program of monitoring and protective measures will have to be developed in near future to protect densely populated areas against landslides as a consequence of weather extremes.     

Fatal landslides in Europe

Landslides are a major hazard causing human and large economic losses worldwide. However, the quantification of fatalities and casualties is highly underestimated and incomplete, thus, the estimation of landslide risk is rather ambitious. Hence, a spatio-temporal distribution of deadly landslides is presented for 27 European countries over the last 20  years (1995–2014). Catastrophic landslides are widely distributed throughout Europe, however, with a great concentration in mountainous areas. In the studied period, a total of 1370 deaths and 784 injuries were reported resulting from 476 landslides. Turkey showed the highest fatalities with 335. An increasing trend of fatal landslides is observed, with a pronounced number of fatalities in the latest period from 2008 to 2014. The latter are mostly triggered by natural extreme events such as storms (i.e., heavy rainfall), earthquakes, and floods and only minor by human activities, such as mining and excavation works. Average economic loss per year in Europe is approximately 4.7 billion Euros. This study serves as baseline information for further risk mapping by integrating deadly landslide locations, local land use data, and will therefore help countries to protect human lives and property.     

Spatial distribution analysis and susceptibility mapping of landslides triggered before and after Mw7.8 Gorkha earthquake along Upper Bhote Koshi,Nepal

The 2015 Mw7.8 Gorkha earthquake triggered thousands of landslides of various types scattered over a large area. In the current study, we utilized pre- and post-earthquake high-resolution satellite imagery to compile two landslide inventories before and after earthquake and prepared three landslide susceptibility maps within 404 km² area using frequency ratio (FR) model. From the study, we could map about 519 landslides including 178 pre-earthquake slides and 341 coseismic slides were identified. This study investigated the relationship between landslide occurrence and landslide causative factors, i.e., slope, aspect, altitude, plan curvature, lithology, land use, distance from streams, distance from road, distance from faults, and peak ground acceleration. The analysis showed that the majority of landslides both pre-earthquake and coseismic occurred at slope >30°, preferably in S, SE, and SW directions and within altitude ranging from 1000 to 1500 m and 1500 to 3500 m. Scatter plots between number of landslides per km^?2 (LN) and percentage of landslide area (LA) and causative factors indicate that slope is the most influencing factor followed by lithology and PGA for the landslide formation. Higher landslide susceptibility before earthquake is observed along the road and rivers, whereas landslides after earthquake are triggered at steeper slopes and at higher altitudes. Combined susceptibility map indicates the effect of topography, geology, and land cover in the triggering of landslides in the entire basin. The resultant landslide susceptibility maps are verified through AUC showing success rates of 78, 81, and 77%, respectively. These susceptibility maps are helpful for engineers and planners for future development work in the landslide prone area.     

Utilizing crowdsourcing to enhance the mitigation and management of landslides

Landslides are mainly triggered by earthquakes and rainfall and have poor temporal predictability. Landslides pose significant threats to settlements and infrastructure in mountainous regions around the world. To mitigate this natural hazard, a new paradigm of landslide mitigation and management is required. Increasing smartphone ownership around the world, especially in developing countries, offers scientists an opportunity to embrace crowdsourcing so as to improve landslide research. This paper presents a new landslide information system (LIS) comprising a smartphone app and an administrative interface and database. The mobile app has been published for both iPhone and Android platforms. The interface of the smartphone app is powered by the highly-customizable Google Maps platform, which is overlaid with real-time landslide data. Users can choose between visualizing “known sites” and “contribution” of landslide data. The visualization option shows published landslides and areas that are susceptible. Users can contribute their GPS coordinates and multimedia to enhance landslide reports. A comparison with similar systems, potential applications, and challenges of using smartphone technology for mitigating landslides are also discussed.     

走滑断裂型地震诱发的滑坡在断裂两盘的空间分布差异

以玉树地震滑坡为实例,选择高程、坡度、坡向、坡位、水系、地层岩性、同震地表破裂、地震动峰值加速度(PGA)8个因子,以地震滑坡面积百分比(LAP)与滑坡点密度(LND)为指标,研究走滑断裂型地震诱发滑坡在断裂两盘的空间分布差异。在分析这些影响因子的断裂两盘的差异的基础上,基于LAP与LND两个指标详细分析断裂两盘每个因子内部级别滑坡发育的情况。结果表明,总体上北盘的滑坡较南盘发育,除了个别因子级别内南北盘滑坡差别较大外,大部分表现为南北盘滑坡分布情况类似。总之,玉树地震滑坡在断裂两盘的空间分布基本类似,只是在某些因子分级内存在一定的差异。     

万(州)-梁(平)高速公路K34～K59段滑坡成因分析

万(州)-梁(平)高速公路K34-K59段滑坡十分发育，是重庆境内滑坡灾害最为严重的一段。该区地质条件复杂，岩体中缓倾角结构面、软化夹层发育，在外界因素触发下，即可形成岩层向临空面松弛滑移的依附面。1999年12月-2003年9月，该路段发生滑坡灾害23处，增加工程投资2亿多元，对高速公路的建设造成很大的危害和威胁，并拖延了工期，给国民经济建设带来严重的影响和损失。文章依据工程地质勘察结果，从该滑坡的地质环境及变形特征分析，对其形成机制做了深入研究，为今后类似滑坡的防治提供参考。近年来，在高等级公路的建设中，线形要求严格，在山区及丘陵地区往往需要采用开挖方式通过，由于建设中的不合理工程活动，新滑坡的产生以及老滑坡的复活可能性大增。致使滑坡灾害日趋严重。通过对影响岩质路堑边坡稳定性因素分析，说明了这些影响因素与边坡稳定性的关系。文章认为特殊的地质构造及易滑地层的广泛分布，是滑坡大量出现的地质基础。大量降雨入渗，不合理的人为工程是滑坡的诱发因素。各种情况表明，在今后一定时期内，人类活动可能成为滑坡的主要影响因素。     

Predisposition and cause of the catastrophic landslides of August 2005 in Brienz (Switzerland)

Very intensive rainfall in August 2005 (>300 mm/3 days) triggered moderately deep (2–10 m) landslides of about 50'000 m³ volume each in two mountain torrent catchments above the village of Brienz (Berner Oberland, Switzerland). These landslides – originating in Trachtbach and Glyssibach catchments – transformed into extremely rapid (>5 m/s) debris flows, which caused significant damage in inhabited areas; two persons lost their lives and about twenty-five families became homeless. The Brienz case was the most damaging one among many landslide disasters occurring during those rainy days in the Swiss Alps. In this paper we study in detail the predisposition and causes of the 2005 landslides in the Brienz area, based on field mapping, analysis of high resolution images and digital terrain models, derived from LIDAR and infrared measurements taken before and after the event. The features of these landslides are compared with past and dormant landslides in the mid-slope portion of the mountain chain north of Brienz, which has been the source of many catastrophic mass wasting events during the last centuries. Detailed field mapping shows that highly weathered series of strongly overconsolidated Mesozoic marls (Diphyoides Limestone & Vitznau Marls of Valanginian age) and their residual soils form the primary source for the sliding materials. The rupture surfaces of the moderately deep landslides often run at the transition from saprolite to weathered bedrock, with a dip angle of about 40o in the landslide depletion area. These landslides transform into debris flows, where debris slides into strongly convergent hillslopes or directly into headwater channels.     

不同类型滑坡渐进破坏过程与稳定性研究

滑坡的类型一般可分为牵引式滑坡、推移式滑坡和复合式滑坡,根据其滑面的发展形态,依次表现为前进式渐进破坏模式、后退式渐进破坏模式和复合式渐进破坏模式。基于岩土体应变软化特性,揭示了滑坡渐进破坏过程的本质是滑带力学参数弱化的过程,初步探讨了3种类型滑坡渐进破坏过程的远动特点和力学特征和滑坡渐进演化过程。以不平衡推力法和3种类型滑坡的演化特征为基础,提出3种类型滑坡渐进破坏过程中临界状态条块确定方法,通过建立滑坡渐进破坏稳定性计算模型和计算公式,提出滑坡随着渐进演化过程的滑带参数取值方法,并阐述了渐进破坏过程的稳定性计算实现过程,实现不同类型滑坡渐进破坏过程的稳定性分析。以3个典型滑坡为例,分析得出滑坡渐进破坏过程中牵引式滑坡和复合式滑坡稳定性降低速率由大到小再到大和推移式滑坡稳定性降低速率由小到大的过程,3种类型滑坡在渐进破坏过程中不同部位对稳定性的贡献不同,验证了不同类型滑坡的变形规律。研究结论可对不同类型滑坡的稳定性发展进行初步预测和为滑坡治理提供指导意义。     

Dynamic properties of earthquake-induced large-scale rapid landslides within past landslide masses

During the 2004 Mid-Niigata Prefecture earthquake, thousands of landslides were triggered, among them two large-scale rapid landslides (Higashi Takezawa and Terano landslides) occurred within past landslide masses and dammed the river at the toe of the landslides, posing great risks for the society. Detailed field investigation was performed on these two landslides. To examine the triggering and movement mechanisms, samples were taken from these two landslides. By using a ring shear apparatus, real earthquake wave loading test and cyclic loading tests were performed on these samples. The test results revealed that those sand samples from both landslides can suffer from sliding surface liquefaction phenomenon with very low final apparent friction angles, while the silt sample from Terano landslide showed no liquefaction failure, indicating that the sliding surfaces of these rapid landslides must have been formed within the sand layer in the past landslide masses.     

Volume,gravitational potential energy reduction,and regional centroid position change in the wake of landslides triggered by the 14 April 2010 Yushu earthquake of China

In recent years, earthquake-triggered landslides have attracted much attention in the scientific community as a main form of seismic ground response. However, little work has been performed concerning the volume and gravitational potential energy reduction of earthquake-triggered landslides and their severe effect on landscape change. This paper presents a quantitative study on the volume, gravitational potential energy reduction, and change in landscape related to landslides triggered by the 14 April 2010 Yushu earthquake. At least 2,036 landslides were triggered by the earthquake. A total landslide scar area of 1.194 km² was delineated from the visual interpretation of aerial photographs and satellite images and was supported by selected field checking. In this paper, we focus on possible answers to the following five questions: (1) What is the total volume of the 2,036 landslides triggered by the earthquake, and what is the average landslide erosion thickness in the earthquake-stricken area? (2) What are the elevations of all landslide materials in relation to pre- and post-landsliding? (3) How much was the gravitational potential energy reduced due to the sliding of these landslide materials? (4) What is the average elevation change caused by these landslides in the study area? (5) What is the vertical change of the regional centroid position above sea level, as induced by these landslides? It is concluded that the total volume of the 2,036 landslides is 2.9399?×?10⁶ m³. The landslide erosion thickness throughout the study area is 2.02 mm. The materials of these landslides moved from an elevation of 4,145.243 to 4,104.697 m, resulting in a decreased distance of 40.546 m. The gravitational potential energy reduction related to the landslides triggered by the earthquake was 2.9213?×?10¹² J. The average regional elevation of the study area is 4,427.160 m, a value consistent with the assumption that the accumulated materials were remained in situ. This value changes from 4,427.160 to 4,427.158 m with all landslide materials moved out of the study area, resulting in a reduction in elevation of 2 mm. Based on the assumption that all landslide materials moved out of the study area, the elevations of the centroid of the study area’s crust changed from 2,222.45967 to 2,222.45867 m, which means the centroid value decreased by 1 mm. This value is 0.001 mm when assuming that the materials were remained in situ, which is almost negligible, compared with the situation of “all landslide materials moved out of the study area.”     

Trend and spatiotemporal distribution of fatal landslides triggered by non-seismic effects in China

A large number of slope movements occur in China annually. Especially, fatal landslides are the most hazardous, causing serious fatalities and significant socio-economic losses. In this study, we collected data on fatal landslides triggered by non-seismic effects from China’s geological environment information site and Ministry of Natural Resources of China for the period 2004–2016. Then, we carried out a statistical analysis of the data to explore the trend and spatiotemporal distribution of the fatal landslides, as well as the distribution of its losses in economic and fatality terms. In the studied period, a total of 4718 deaths were recorded as resulting from 463 landslide events. It represents a frequency of 36 events and an average of 363 deaths every year. Also, an increasing trend of such landslide is observed in the period 2011–2016 with hazard record improvement. But its economic loss has a decreasing proportion of all recorded non-seismic geohazard loss for this period. Even so, the total economic loss in the studied period is still enormous at $981.29 million. The spatial distribution of fatal landslides shows intensive clusters in southwestern and southern China due to the possible distinctive geological environment and precipitation conditions. The temporal distribution reveals significant association with the rainy season, with the largest quantity of events occurring between June and September. Among all the collected landslides during the studied period, 94.2% are associated with rainfall. This research gives a comprehensive recognition of fatal landslide damage and provides baseline information for landslide prevention and mitigation.     

Rainstorm-induced landslides at Kisawa village, Tokushima Prefecture, Japan, August 2004

Heavy rain fell on the Shikoku area during Typhoon Namtheun, setting a new record for daily rainfall in Japan of 1317 mm. The rain which peaked at 120 mm/h, triggered numerous landslides in the Nakagawa basin of Tokushima Prefecture, Japan on August 1, 2004. Among them, four large, rapid, long-runout landslides were triggered at Kisawa village. Two people were caught in one landslide and disappeared without trace, and there was much property damage. Ring-shear tests on samples from the landslides showed that shear resistance was greatly reduced by high pore-water pressure after shear failure was triggered by the increase in ground-water level during the rain.     

Statistical analysis of landslides caused by the Mw 6.9 Yushu,China, earthquake of April 14, 2010

The April 14, 2010 Yushu, China, earthquake (Mw 6.9) triggered a great number of landslides. At least 2,036 co-seismic landslides, with a total coverage area of 1.194 km², were delineated by visual interpretation of aerial photographs and satellite images taken following the earthquake, and verified by field inspection. Based on the mapping results, a statistical analysis of the spatial distribution of these landslides is performed using the landslide area percentage (LAP), defined as the percentage of the area affected by the landslides, and landslide number density (LND), defined as the number of landslides per square kilometer. The purpose is to clarify how the landslides correlate the control factors, which are the elevation, slope angle, slope aspect, slope position, distance from drainages, lithology, distance from the surface rupture, and peak ground acceleration (PGA). The results show that both LAP and LND have strongly positive correlations with slope angle and negative correlations with distance from the surface rupture and distance from drainages. The highest LAP and LPD values are in places of elevations from 3,800 to 4,000 m. The slopes producing landslides are mostly facing toward NE, E, and SE. The geological units of Q₄ al-pl, N, and T₃ kn ¹ have the highest concentrations of co-seismic landslides. No apparent correlations are present between LAP and LND values and PGA. On both sides of the surface rupture, the landslide distributions are almost similar except a few exceptions, likely associated with the nature of the strike-slip seismogenic fault for this event. The bivariate statistical analysis shows that, in descending order, the earthquake-triggered landslide impact factors are distance from surface rupture > slope angle > distance from drainages > lithology > PGA. Besides, as the detailed co-seismic landslides inventories related to strike-slip earthquakes are still few compared with that of thrusting-fault earthquakes, this case study would shed new light on the subject. For instance, the landslide spatial distribution on both sides of the strike-slip seismogenic fault is rather different from that of thrusting-fault earthquakes. It reminds us to take different strategies of measures for prevention and mitigation of landslides induced by earthquakes with different mechanisms.     

工程措施影响滑坡地下水动态的数值模拟研究

大多数滑坡的发生与地下水活动有关 ,地下水的动态变化直接关系到滑坡的稳定性状况。因此 ,在滑坡治理工程中 ,首先需要研究各种影响因素和工程治理措施对坡体地下水位的影响方式 ,从而正确分析滑坡成因机制和制定合理的滑坡治理方案。基于工程滑坡实例研究 ,利用数值模拟 ,揭示了滑坡治理工程中地下排水洞的排水效果 ,分析了地表水集中入渗和设置抗滑桩后地下水渗流场的变化特征。表明数值模拟研究 ,可以有效地揭示工程措施及主要影响因素对滑坡地下水动态的影响方式 ,为滑坡治理奠定必要的基础     

Rainfall thresholds for rainfall-induced landslides in Slovenia

In Slovenia, rainfall-induced landslides lead to considerable damages, even causing human losses. In order to reduce the impact of this kind of landslide, several researchers analyzed rainfall-induced landslides in this country, but to date, no rainfall thresholds have been developed for a landslide warning system at national scale. In this paper, the definition of rainfall thresholds for rainfall-induced landslides in Slovenia is presented. The thresholds have been calculated by collecting approximately 900 landslide data and the relative rainfall amounts, which have been collected from 41 rain gauges. To define the thresholds, an existing procedure characterized by a high degree of objectiveness has been used. This approach is based on a software that was developed for a test site with very different characteristics (Tuscany, central Italy). At first, a single national threshold has been defined; subsequently, the country was divided into four zones, on the basis of the major river basins. The effectiveness of the thresholds has been verified by the use of several statistical parameters and it resulted in quite good performances, even if with some uncertainties, probably due to the quality of the available data. Besides the setting of a threshold system, usable for civil protection purposes at national scale, an additional outcome of this work was the possibility of applying, with good results, a methodology defined for another region, therefore testing its degree of exportability in different settings.     

地震破裂带特殊部位大型滑坡及其基于构造地貌发生模型的机制解释:以东河口抛射型滑坡为例

汶川地震在龙门山地区激发了大量的次生地质灾害,其中尤以滑坡灾害分布最为广泛和严重。在所有滑坡灾害中,东河口滑坡发生在北川破裂带的北东端点,具有相当的特殊性,并造成了大量的生命财产损失。东河口滑坡是一种抛射型滑坡,具有与其他如重力或者降雨作用导致的滑坡不同的特点,即没有统一连续的滑动面,由上部比较深陡和下部比较浅缓的截然分开的两部分组成,在强地震加速度的作用下,滑坡体被抛射并在与地面发生碰撞之前沿抛物线轨迹运行。文章综合分析了东河口抛射型滑坡发生的地质地貌条件,并解释了该抛射型滑坡发生的动力源机制。结果显示,东河口滑坡区的滑坡带和翼状裂隙带在北川破裂带两侧的规则分布受控于断层的运动方式和滑坡的空间分布位置;此外,除地震动水平加速度和地质地貌条件外,垂直加速度和断层的运动方式对地震滑坡的激发也起着重要的作用。     

Geometric and kinematic characterization of landslides affecting urban areas: the Lungro case study (Calabria,Southern Italy)

The geometric and kinematic characterization of landslides affecting urban areas is a challenging goal that is routinely pursued via geological/geomorphological method and monitoring of ground displacements achieved by geotechnical and, more recently, advanced differential interferometric synthetic aperture radar (A-DInSAR) data. Although the integration of all the above-mentioned methods should be planned a priori to be more effective, datasets resulting from the independent use of these different methods are commonly available, thus making crucial the need for their standardized a posteriori integration. In this regard, the present paper aims to provide a contribution by introducing a procedure that, taking into account the specific limits of geological/geomorphological analyses and deep/surface ground displacement monitoring via geotechnical and A-DInSAR data, allows the a posteriori integration of the results by exploiting their complementarity for landslide characterization. The approach was tested in the urban area of Lungro village (Calabria region, southern Italy), which is characterized by complex geological/geomorphological settings, widespread landslides and peculiar urban fabric. In spite of the different level of information preliminarily available for each landslide as result of the independent use of the three methods, the implementation of the proposed procedure allowed a better understanding and typifying of the geometry and kinematics of 50 landslides. This provided part of the essential background for geotechnical landslide models to be used for slope stability analysis within landslide risk mitigation strategies.