Kinematics of the Cerca del Cielo, Puerto Rico landslide derived from GPS observations

Global positioning system (GPS) technologies have been increasingly employed to monitor landslide movements. This paper demonstrates the use of GPS in the study of a creeping landslide in Ponce, Puerto Rico. The landslide is primarily composed of chalk colluvium that extends to depths of about 30 m at the head zone and 2 to 3 m at the toe zone. The slip surface lies at the base of the chalk colluvium, which slides southeast over a weathered brown mudstone unit. GPS monitoring of the landslide began in March 2008. Both campaign rapid static and continuous static GPS surveying methods were applied. Precision at the level of 0.5 mm horizontally and 1.3 mm vertically was achieved through 24-h continuous GPS monitoring. Rainfall data from a local weather station was also integrated into the study. Rainfall heavily influenced the movements of the landslide. A heavy rainfall in September 2008, which dumped 50 cm rain on the landslide area over a 4-day period, temporarily accelerated the sliding and generated rapid movement of 1 m horizontally and 0.5 m vertically. The slide slowed markedly after this significant movement. A prolonged moderate rainfall in November 2009 also temporarily accelerated the sliding. The landslide remains active. The creeping appears likely to continue in the future with short bursts of rainfall-induced rapid movements. Potential landslide causes are investigated, and two measures to minimize future risk are proposed at the end of the article.     

Bimodal volcanism in northeast Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands (Greater Antilles Island Arc): Genetic links with Cretaceous subduction of the mid-Atlantic ridge Caribbean spur

Bimodal extrusive volcanic rocks in the northeast Greater Antilles Arc consist of two interlayered suites, including (1) a predominantly basaltic suite, dominated by island arc basalts with small proportions of andesite, and (2) a silicic suite, similar in composition to small volume intrusive veins of oceanic plagiogranite commonly recognized in oceanic crustal sequences. The basaltic suite is geochemically characterized by variable enrichment in the more incompatible elements and negative chondrite-normalized HFSE anomalies. Trace element melting and mixing models indicate the magnitude of the subducted sediment component in Antilles arc basalts is highly variable and decreases dramatically from east to west along the arc. In the Virgin Islands, the sediment component ranges between< 0.5 to  1% in Albian rocks, and between  1 and 2% in succeeding Cenomanian to Campanian strata. In comparison, sediment proportions in central Puerto Rico range between 0.5 to 1.5% in the Albian to 2 to > 4% during the Cenomanian-Campanian interval. The silicic suite, consisting predominantly of rhyolites, is characterized by depleted Al₂O₃ (average < 16%), low Mg-number (molar Mg/Mg + Fe < 0.5), TiO₂ (< 1.0%), and Sr/Y (< 10), oceanic or arc-like Sr, Nd, and Pb isotope signatures, and by the presence of plagioclase. All of these features are consistent with an anatexic origin in gabbroic sources, of both oceanic and arc-related origin, within the sub-arc basement. The abundance of silicic lavas varies widely along the length of the arc platform. In the Virgin Islands on the east, rhyolites comprise up to 80% of Lower Albian strata (112 to 105 Ma), and about 20% in post-Albian strata (105 to 100 Ma). Farther west, in Puerto Rico, more limited proportions (< 20%) of silicic lavas were erupted. The systematic variation of both sediment flux and abundance of crustally derived silicic lavas are consistent with current tectonic models of Caribbean evolution involving approximately perpendicular subduction of the Caribbean spur of the mid-Atlantic Ridge, which was located approximately midway between North and South America until Campanian times. Within this hypothetical setting the centrally positioned Virgin Islands terrain remained approximately fixed above the subducting ridge as the Antilles arc platform swept northeastward into the slot between the Americas. Accordingly, heat flow in the Virgin Islands was elevated throughout the Cretaceous, giving rise to widespread crustal melting, whereas the subducted sediment flux was limited. Conversely, toward the west in central Puerto Rico, which was consistently more remote from the subducting ridge, heat flow was relatively low and produced limited crustal melting, while the sediment flux was comparatively elevated.     

GPS PPP技术用于滑坡监测的试验与结果分析

为了研究全球定位系统(GPS)精密单点定位(PPP)技术用于滑坡等地质灾害监测时可能达到的精度和可靠性等问题,结合某类滑坡的大型物理模型试验,在滑坡体上布设了若干GPS监测点进行连续实时动态监测,利用PPP技术对该滑坡从稳定、开始滑动直至产生破坏的全过程监测数据进行了处理与分析,并与GPS单历元差分定位、载波相位实时差分定位技术监测结果进行了对比。结果表明:GPS PPP技术监测结果的内符合精度约为10 mm,外符合精度约为40 mm,且GPS PPP技术具有一些差分GPS无法比拟的优势,如无需基准站支持、作业成本低、效率高、可直接获取监测点在国际地球参考框架下的绝对坐标等。该技术完全可用于滑坡等地质灾害的实时动态监测和预警。     

Delineating and defining the boundaries of an active landslide in the rainforest of Puerto Rico using a combination of airborne and terrestrial LIDAR data

Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) is a remote sensing technique that uses light, often using pulses from a laser to measure the distance to a target. Both terrestrial- and airborne-based LIDAR techniques have been frequently used to map landslides. Airborne LIDAR has the advantage of identifying large scarps of landslides covered by tree canopies and is widely applied in identifying historical and current active landslides hidden in forested areas. However, because landslides naturally have relatively small vertical surface deformation in the foot area, it is practically difficult to identify the margins of landslide foot area with the limited spatial resolution (few decimeters) of airborne LIDAR. Alternatively, ground-based LIDAR can achieve resolution of several centimeters and also has the advantages of being portable, repeatable, and less costly. Thus, ground-based LIDAR can be used to identify small deformations in landslide foot areas by differencing repeated terrestrial laser scanning surveys. This study demonstrates a method of identifying the superficial boundaries as well as the bottom boundary (sliding plane) of an active landslide in National Rainforest Park, Puerto Rico, USA, using the combination of ground-based and airborne LIDAR data. The method of combining terrestrial and airborne LIDAR data can be used to study landslides in other regions. This study also indicates that intensity and density of laser point clouds are remarkably useful in identifying superficial boundaries of landslides.     

四川丹巴县甲居滑坡GPS监测结果及分析

对四川丹巴县甲居滑坡开展的GPS监测表明,甲居滑坡可以分为南北两个区域,其中北部区域滑动较为明显;滑坡体北部水平位移速度53mm/a～200mm/a,垂直位移速度-3 mm/a～-21mm/a;滑坡体南部水平位移速度12mm/a～36mm/a,垂直位移速度-1mm/a～-5mm/a。GPS提供的水平位移量趋势性较好,而垂向位移量结果异常较多,反映出GPS的水平监测优势。GPS监测精度达到毫米级,完全满足滑坡监测的精度要求。     

Determining the reference frame for kinematic analysis in S-tectonites using AMS

Salem-Attur shear zone in the Southern Granulite Terrane demarcates the tectonic boundary between Archaean granulites of Dharwar craton and the Palaeoproterozoic granulites of Salem area. The shear zone marks a low angle thrust which has been steepened at places due to late stage folding. Static recrystallisation during late stage folding has removed the strain marker of mylonites to large extent. However, in a few places S-C angle and porphyroclasts are preserved and have been used to compute the strain. The strain shows apparent flattening by simple shear deformation with 35 % volume loss. A minimum displacement along the thrust has been computed to be 2.7 km. The strain k values increases with r suggesting the strain approaching towards prolate field with increase in strain intensity. The above study suggests the Salem-Attur shear zone is a thrust with low to moderate deformation and volume loss.     

GPS在三峡水库区云阳县滑坡监测中的应用

文章概述了在库区云阳段建立GPS滑坡监测网的观测实践,以黄泥巴蹬坎滑体为例,介绍了GPS相对定位技术在云阳县滑坡的应用现状和进展。在采用GPS监测、深部位移监测、宏观地质巡视的同时,还监测降雨量、地下水位、库水位及不合理的人类工程活动。通过多种监测方法分析,发现在雨季滑坡容易产生变形,非雨季变形缓慢。目前,雨季日变率均小于5mm,而在非雨季平均日变率小于1mm。认为该边坡处于缓慢变形阶段(警惕线)。此外,在巡视过程中,也发现了多条宽1~5mm、长度不等的裂缝和高度不等的局部错台。根据近2年所获得的观测成果分析,深部位移监测、GPS监测和宏观巡视的结果十分吻合,效果令人满意。文章还总结了在滑坡监测中消除GPS测量主要误差的对策。满足方便快捷的同时,在不同时段采集GPS监测数据,适当延长监测时段,每个监测点至少观测2h的要求。多方收集信息,尽量避开潮汐、太阳黑子等活动的时段进行GPS监测。     

Hydrogeochemical prospecting for porphyry copper deposits in the tropical-marine climate of Puerto Rico

A hydrogeochemical survey utilizing waters from streams and springs was conducted in the area of two known porphyry copper deposits in the tropical-marine climate of westcentral Puerto Rico. The most important pathfinder for regional hydrogeochemical surveys is sulfate which reflects the associated pyrite mineralization. Because of increased mobility due to intense chemical weathering and the low pH environment, dissolved copper can also be used as a pathfinder for regional surveys and has the advantage of distinguishing barren pyrite from pyrite associated with copper mineralization. For follow-up surveys, the most important pathfinders are copper, sulfate, pH, zinc, and fluoride. High concentrations of dissolved copper and moderate concentrations of sulfate is a diagnostic indication of nearby sources of copper minerals.An understanding of the geochemical processes taking place in the streambeds and the weathering environment, such as the precipitation of secondary copper minerals, contributes to the interpretation of the geochemical data and the selection of the most favorable areas for further exploration.     

Dip variations of the North American and North Caribbean Plates dominate the tectonic activity of Puerto Rico–Virgin Islands and adjacent areas

The M 7.0 Haiti earthquake of 2010 in the Greater Antilles is a reminder that the northeastern Caribbean is at a high risk for seismic and tsunami hazards. The Greater Antilles consist of the Hispaniola microplate to the west and Puerto Rico–Virgin Islands to the east and are situated between two subduction zones with the Puerto Rico Trench to the north and the Muertos Trough to the south. Although there is no active volcanism on Puerto Rico, earthquake depths and previous seismic tomography results imply that the slabs of Caribbean and North American Plates exist at depth. However, how far the east Muertos Trough subduction of the North Caribbean Plate has extended has not been fully addressed. In addition, the Puerto Rico–Virgin Islands are bounded by extensional regimes to both the west (Mona Rift) and east (Anegada Passage). The cause of the extension is still under debate. In this paper, we use new 3D seismic tomography and gravity data to carry out an integrated study of the geometry of the subducting slabs of the North American and North Caribbean Plates in the Puerto Rico–Virgin Islands area. The results indicate that both slabs have an increase of dip westward, which is strongly controlled by the subduction rollback of the North American Plate. These variations affected the tectonic evolution of the Puerto Rico–Virgin Islands. Thus, the results of this research advance our understanding of the kinematic evolution of the Puerto Rico–Virgin Islands and associated natural hazards. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

GPS在滑坡监测中的应用——以四川省丹巴县亚喀则滑坡为例

本文通过在四川丹巴县梭坡乡亚喀则滑坡区布设的GPS监测网的测量,阐述了GPS在滑坡监测时监测点位选择、监测网布设、数据处理的方法。亚喀则滑坡的GPS监测结果表明,其精度达到毫米级,完全满足滑坡监测的精度要求。     

Assessment of hurricane wind performance and potential design modifications for informally constructed housing in Puerto Rico

This study assesses the wind performance of various housing typologies representing informal construction practices in Puerto Rico to suggest modifications to enhance housing resilience in hurricanes. Based on fieldwork and interviews, the study defined four base housing typologies and possible variations in design and construction details. Each house was assessed using performance-based static wind analysis of potentially critical components. The results show that the initial governing failure mode in all base house typologies considered is roof panel loss due to tear-through at the fasteners, with subsequent governing failures being panel loss due to failures at the purlin-to-truss connections and failures of the truss-to-wall connections. In-plane wall failures and masonry uplift failures were both found to occur at much higher wind speeds than roof failures. To improve the hurricane performance, several feasible modifications are suggested, including installing hurricane straps at both the truss-to-wall and the purlin-to-truss connections, as well as improving the panel-fastener interface. In the construction of new roofs, this study found that using reduced spacing between roof members, hip roofs instead of gable roofs, and higher roof slopes leads to improved performance. These recommendations can make houses built through informal construction processes safer and more resilient to hurricanes as a form of climate adaptation.

     

Erratum to: Integration of GPS with InSAR to monitoring of the Jiaju landslide in Sichuan,China

In 2006, a cooperation project between China Geological Survey and the Geological Survey of Canada started the monitoring of the landslide along the deep-cut valley in the western Sichuan using integrated GPS and InSAR observation at the Jiaju landslide. Both GPS and InSAR techniques provided complementary measurements with the GPS providing horizontal movement and InSAR providing vertical motion. Meanwhile, InSAR images demonstrate also an effective tool to recognize new landslides in complex steep mountain region. The GPS observations provide continuous monitoring data while InSAR data provide monthly measurements. The differential InSAR results show a deformation information that divided the Jiaju landslide to two areas, the north and south parts. The north part is sliding greater than the southern part in spatial domain. The sliding was faster in 2008 than that in 2006 in time domain, suggesting a gradual increased acceleration over time. The GPS displacement data during the past 2  years show the northern part slid horizontally 55–207 mm/a and vertically −23 mm/a, while the southern part slid horizontally 12–34 mm/a; and the vertical displacement mainly moved downward 0.05 to 12 mm/a. On average, the observations from December of 2006 to January of 2008 indicate that the northern part is sliding at 41.6 mm/a horizontally and 43.9 mm/a vertically, while the southern part is sliding at 16.1 mm/a horizontally and 17.5 mm/a vertically. The data acquired through the GPS and InSAR are generally comparable. Geological survey revealed some secondary landslides, cracks, and fissures within the deformation of the Jiaju landslide that could be induced by following factors: surface water drainage, river erosion, and slope cutting and overloading.     

三峡库区张桓侯庙东侧滑坡动态监测成果分析与应用

三峡库区张桓侯庙东侧滑坡为一大型土质滑坡。为了掌握滑坡的变形状态,对滑坡实施应急动态监测,采用了地表位移、地表沉降、深部位移、地下水位、降雨量及泉流量监测等手段,确定了滑坡的变形范围、主滑方向、滑面深度等基本要素及内部、外部变形特征,通过对监测成果的综合分析将滑坡分为强变形区与弱变形区,确认滑坡性质总体上为推移式,右侧前缘具有牵引式的性质。判断滑坡在监测期间处于匀速变形阶段,降雨是影响滑坡稳定性的主要因素,起到了加速滑面形成的作用。利用监测成果修正了滑面形态,反演滑带参数。建议对滑坡的防治加强地表排水,切忌对强变形区前缘进行开挖。     

Assessment of co-seismic landslide susceptibility using LR and ANCOVA in Barpak region,Nepal

Nepal was affected by a catastrophic earthquake with Mw 7.8 on 25th April, 2015 with its epicenter in the central part of Barpak village. A number of co-seismic landslides were triggered by the main shock of the event and associated aftershocks. Due to the rugged topography and vicinity of the main shock, the village was extremely affected by co-seismic landslides. In total, 59 landslides were identified using Google Earth and were verified during the field survey in Barpak village. Furthermore, 11 conditioning factors, including Peak ground acceleration (PGA), epicenter proximity, fault proximity, geology, slope, elevation, plan curvature, profile curvature, topographic wetness index, drainage proximity and the sediment transport index were selected as independent variables for analysis. In this study, logistic regression (LR) and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) models were used and their performance was assessed. Finally, the landslide susceptibility classes were produced and an evaluation of models was done by using receiver operating characteristic curves. The area under the curve for LR and ANCOVA showed 85.38 and 78.4% accuracy, respectively. Based on the overall assessments, the LR model was more accurate than the ANCOVA model for co-seismic landslide prediction in the study area. The result of this study can be used to mitigate landslide-induced hazards and for land-use planning.     

Understanding the occurrences of fault and landslide in the region of West-Cameroon using remote sensing and GIS techniques

Natural Hazards - Remote sensing was used to visualize the West region with the purpose of investigating recent natural hazards observed in this area. Various approaches used based on...     

A comparative study of stream water and stream sediment as geochemical exploration media in the Rio Tanama porphyry copper district,Puerto Rico

To test the relative effectiveness of stream water and sediment as geochemical exploration media in the Rio Tanama porphyry copper district of Puerto Rico, we collected and subsequently analyzed samples of water and sediment from 29 sites in the rivers and tributaries of the district. Copper, Mo, Pb, Zn, SO₄^2?, and pH were determined in the waters; Cu, Mo, Pb, and Zn were determined in the sediments. In addition, copper in five partial extractions from the sediments was determined. Geochemical contrast (anomaly-to-background quotient) was the principal criterion by which the effectiveness of the two media and the five extractions were judged.Among the distribution patterns of metals in stream water, that of copper most clearly delineates the known porphyry copper deposits and yields the longest discernable dispersion train. The distribution patterns of Mo, Pb, and Zn in water show little relationship to the known mineralization. The distribution of SO₄^2? in water delineates the copper deposits and also the more extensive pyrite alteration in the district; its recognizable downstream dispersion train is substantially longer than those of the metals, either in water or sediment. Low pH values in small tributaries delineate areas of known sulfide mineralization.The distribution patterns of copper in sediments clearly delineate the known deposits, and the dispersion trains are longer than those of copper in water.The partial determinations of copper related to secondary iron and manganese oxides yield the strongest geochemical contrasts and longest recognizable dispersion trains. Significantly high concentrations of molybdenum in sediments were found at only three sites, all within one-half km downstream of the known copper deposits. The distribution patterns of lead and zinc in sediments are clearly related to the known primary lead-zinc haloes around the copper deposits. The recognizable downstream dispersion trains of lead and zinc are shorter than those of copper.     

GIS-based landslide susceptibility zonation for roadside slope repair and maintenance in the Himalayan region

Roadside slope failure is a common problem in the Himalayan region as road construction activities disturb natural slopes. Therefore, landslide susceptibility zonation is necessary for roadside slope disaster management and planning development activities. In this study, we consider a 53-kin section of a major highway in Nepal where road services are suspended for several days in the monsoon season every year. A number of methods have been used for landslide susceptibility zonation. We employed a bivariate statistical approach for this study. Relevant thematic layer maps represent- ing various factors （e.g., slope, aspect, land use, lithology, drainage density, proximity to stream and proximity to road） that are related to landslide activity, have been prepared using Geographic Information System （GIS） techniques. A total of 277 landslides （covering a total of 29.90 km2） of various dimensions have been identified in the area. A landslide susceptibility map was prepared by overlaying a landslide inventory map with various parameter maps segmented into various relevant classes. The landslide susceptibility index was seg- mented into five zones, viz. very low, low, moderate, high and very high susceptibility. Landslide susceptibility zonation maps are useful tools for the efficient planning and management of roadside slope repair and maintenance tasks in the Himalayan region.     

Estimation of strain distribution using GPS measurements in the Kumaun region of Lesser Himalaya

The continuous process of continent–continent collision between the Indian and the Eurasian plates has led to the formation of the Himalayan range and continuously caused earthquakes in the region. Large earthquakes with magnitudes of 8 and above occur in this region infrequently, releasing the elastic strain accumulated over years around the plate boundary. Geodetic measurements can help estimate the strain distribution along the fault system. These measurements provide information on active deformations and associated potential seismic hazards along the Himalayan arc. In order to understand the present deformation around the plate boundary, we collected GPS data during three campaigns in the years of 2005–2007 at 16 sites in the Kumaun region of the Lesser Himalaya. Horizontal velocity vectors estimated in ITRF2000 are found to be in the range of 41–50 mm/yr with an uncertainty level of the order of 1 mm/yr. The velocity field indicates that the present convergence of around 15 mm/yr takes place in the Kumaun Himalaya. Further, we estimate the strain components in the study area for understanding the currently active tectonic process in the region. The estimated dilatational strain indicates that the northern part near the Main Central Thrust (MCT) is more compressional than the southern part. Maximum shear strain is mostly accommodated in the northern part too. The maximum shear and dilatational strain rates are about 1.0 and 0.5 μstrain/yr. It is seen that the distribution of high shear strain spatially correlates with seismicity. The maximum of extensional and compressional strains due to the force acting along the Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the NW–SE direction are found to be 0.4 and 0.1 μstrain/yr, respectively. The maximum shear strain in the northern part of the Himalaya appears to be associated with the convergence of the region proposed by other geophysical studies.