Comparison of two large earthquakes in China: the 2008 Sichuan Wenchuan Earthquake and the 2013 Sichuan Lushan Earthquake

Over a period of 5 years, two large earthquakes struck Sichuan Wenchuan and Lushan successively. The two main seismic zones are only 87 km apart along the same seismic belt on the Longmenshan fault. Although there was only one magnitude of difference between the two great quakes, losses from the 2013 Lushan Earthquake were much lower than that of 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake. This study compares these disasters in terms of preparation and response in order to develop effective ways to reduce casualty and economic loss in future earthquakes. By determining what was done right after the Wenchuan Earthquake, we can better understand how to reduce future losses. This study focuses on seven factors: basic information, preparedness, government response, local residents’ responses, medical rescue teams’ work, earthquake-induced secondary effects, and injury character. We also recommend that three major actions should be emphasized to facilitate the most effective course of disaster planning and action. First, sufficient preparedness and strict preventive measures form the foundation to minimize damage and reduce casualties. Once the disaster had occurred, a single, well-run headquarters increases efficiency in rescue efforts. Finally, local rescue strength of both professional staff and citizens is the most critical factor to lower disaster casualties.     

Critical sensitivity of load/unload response ratio and stress accumulation before large earthquakes: example of the 2008 Mw7.9 Wenchuan earthquake

The Load/Unload Response Ratio (LURR) method is often defined as the ratio between Benioff strains released during the time periods of loading and unloading, corresponding to earth tide induced Coulomb Failure Stress change on optimally oriented faults. According to the method, anomalous increase in the time series of LURR usually occurs prior to occurrence of a large earthquake. Previous studies have indicated that the stress field that existed before a large earthquake has strong influence on the evaluation of LURR. In order to augment the sensitivity of LURR in measuring the criticality of stress accumulation before an earthquake, we replace the circular region usually adopted in LURR practice with an area within which the tectonic stress change would mostly affect the Coulomb stress on a potential seismogenic fault of a future event. Coulomb stress change before the hypothetical earthquake is calculated based on a simple back-slip dislocation model of the event. Retrospective test of this new algorithm on the 2008 Mw7.9 Wenchuan earthquake shows remarkable enhancement of the LURR precursory anomaly. To illustrate the variation of LURR time series associated with our choice of identified areas with increased Coulomb stress before the earthquake, we calculate the spatial distributions of LURR within a circular region of 700 km radius centered at epicenter of the event. Comparing the spatial LURR distributions of different periods, the change of LURR within the Coulomb stress increase areas looks more prominent than the others: it remains at a low level for most of the time and markedly increases few years before the quake. This result further shows the validity of the Coulomb stress algorithm. Unlike circular regions, areas of increased Coulomb stress with anomalously increased LURR values before a large earthquake could provide a relatively more precise estimation of the criticality of the ensuing event.     

Influence of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (Mw 7.9) on the occurrence probability of future earthquakes on neighboring faults

The Longquan–Shan fault and the Huya fault are two major neighboring faults of the Longmen–Shan fault zone where the 12 May 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (M_w 7.9) occurred. To study the influence of the Wenchuan event on these two active faults, we calculate changes of Coulomb stress on the Longquan–Shan fault and the Huya fault caused by the Wenchuan mainshock. Our results indicate that the Coulomb stress in the northern section (Zone A) of the Longquan–Shan fault is increased by 0.07–0.10 bars, that in the middle section (Zone B) by 0.04–0.11 bars, and that in the southern section (Zone C) shows almost no change. For the Huya fault, the Coulomb stress is decreased by 0.01–0.03 bars in the northern section (Zone A), 0.10–0.35 bars in the middle section (Zone B), and nearly 0.5 bars in the southern section (Zone C). The epicenter distribution of small earthquakes (M_L ⩾ 1.5) on the Longquan–Shan fault and the Huya fault after the Wenchuan earthquake is consistent with the distribution of the Coulomb stress change. This implies that the Wenchuan earthquake may have triggered small events on the Longquan–Shan fault, but inhibited those on the Huya fault. We then use the rate/state friction law to calculate the occurrence probability of future earthquakes in the study region for the next decade. They include the distribution of b-values, magnitude of completeness (M_c), the background seismicity rate, a value of Aσ_n and the duration for the transient effect (t_a) in the study region. We also estimate the earthquake occurrence probabilities on the neighboring faults after the Wenchuan earthquake. Our results show that, the occurrence probability of future earthquakes in the Longquan–Shan has a slight increase, being 7% for M ⩾ 5.0 shocks during the next decade, but the earthquake probability in the Huya region is reduced obviously, being 5–20%, 7–26% and 3–9% for M ⩾ 5.0 shocks during the next decade in sections A, B and C of the Huya fault, respectively.     

The Seismogenic Structure and Deformation Mechanism of the Lushan (Mw 6.6) Earthquake,Sichuan, China

On April 20 th, 2013, an earthquake of magnitude MW 6.6 occurred at Lushan of Sichuan on the southern segment of the Longmenshan fault zone, with no typical coseismic surface rupture. This work plotted an isoseismal map of the earthquake after repositioning over 400 post–earthquake macro–damage survey points from peak ground acceleration(PGA) data recorded by the Sichuan Digital Strong Earthquake Network. This map indicates that the Lushan earthquake has a damage intensity of IX on the Liedu scale, and that the meizoseismal area displays an oblate ellipsoid shape, with its longitudinal axis in the NE direction. No obvious directivity was detected. Furthermore, the repositioning results of 3323 early aftershocks, seismic reflection profiles and focal mechanism solutions suggests that the major seismogenic structure of the earthquake was the Dayi Fault, which partly defines the eastern Mengshan Mountain. This earthquake resulted from the thrusting of the Dayi Fault, and caused shortening of the southern segment of the Longmenshan in the NW–SE direction. Coseismal rupture was also produced in the deep of the Xinkaidian Fault. Based on the above seismogenic model and the presentation of coseismic surface deformation, it is speculated that there is a risk of more major earthquakes occurring in this region.     

Household recovery strategies in Longmen Mountain area,Sichuan, China,following the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake disaster

After the Wenchuan earthquake, the overall post-reconstruction of the affected area was completed in 2 years with significant achievements in a top-down fashion. However, the secondary large-scale mass movements and floods that followed the earthquake have shattered mountain settlements and resulted in serious loss of life and property over the last ten years. Local people have taken their own initiative for house reconstruction and recovery. Having taken the tremendous government-driven reconstruction into consideration, the current study aims to understand the contribution of bottom-up approach in whole reconstruction process in Jianjiang River, Longmen Mountain Town of Sichuan, China. This study reveals that in the process of individual rebuilding, local households have tried to construct houses by using more contemporary structures and local resources to rebuild smaller buildings. Such reconstruction activities have changed their lifestyle and source of income to cope with future disasters and adapt with the post-disaster recovery process. Rural households shifted their income sources from tourism to labour migration while revitalizing farming for food and additional income. More than half of residents have no worry about the risk of disasters in reconstruction areas. The bottom-up adaptation can be more sustainable in Longmen Mountain area and provide a reference for other rural areas under recovery after disasters.

     

隐伏断层在强震砂土液化中的作用——以2008年汶川Mw 7.9地震为例

2008年汶川Mw7.9地震的强地面震动在龙门山前地区造成大量的砂土液化、喷砂冒水等地震灾害现象。震后野外调查发现,砂土液化点主要分布于地下水位只有几米深的山前河流的低阶地处,以大面积砾性土液化为特征,约58%的液化点位于距北川断层20~35km的范围内。对喷水高度及喷水过程进行了详细记录,喷水高度与峰值加速度并没有明显的相关性,喷水高度异常点(2m)集中于山前断裂系统近地表投影处。汶川地震中喷水高度异常、砾性土液化的位置与山前断裂系统的吻合性说明,沉积盆地内的地质构造可能在砂土液化强度和与震动相关的地震灾害方面起到促进作用,所以在类似的地质和水文环境中,除主震的断层错动外,应考虑地质构造在地震危险性评估和建筑物抗震设计中的重要作用。     

Assessment of co-seismic landslide hazard using the Newmark model and statistical analyses: a case study of the 2013 Lushan,China, Mw6.6 earthquake

Natural Hazards - The April 20, 2013 Mw6.6 earthquake of Lushan County, Sichuan Province, China, has triggered 4540 landslides (>?1000 m2). Exploring a more effective method...     

Landslide hazards triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, Sichuan, China

The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (M _s = 8.0; epicenter located at 31.0° N, 103.4° E), with a focal depth of 19.0 km was triggered by the reactivation of the Longmenshan fault in Wenchuan County, Sichuan Province, China on 12 May 2008. This earthquake directly caused more than 15,000 geohazards in the form of landslides, rockfalls, and debris flows which resulted in about 20,000 deaths. It also caused more than 10,000 potential geohazard sites, especially for rockfalls, reflecting the susceptibility of high and steep slopes in mountainous areas affected by the earthquake. Landslide occurrence on mountain ridges and peaks indicated that seismic shaking was amplified by mountainous topography. Thirty-three of the high-risk landslide lakes with landslide dam heights greater than 10 m were classified into four levels: extremely high risk, high risk, medium risk, and low risk. The levels were created by comprehensively analyzing the capacity of landslide lakes, the height of landslide dams, and the composition and structure of materials that blocked rivers. In the epicenter area which was 300 km long and 10 km wide along the main seismic fault, there were lots of landslides triggered by the earthquake, and these landslides have a common characteristic of a discontinuous but flat sliding surface. The failure surfaces can be classified into the following three types based on their overall shape: concave, convex, and terraced. Field evidences illustrated that the vertical component of ground shaking had a significant effect on both building collapse and landslide generation. The ground motion records show that the vertical acceleration is greater than the horizontal, and the acceleration must be larger than 1.0 g in some parts along the main seismic fault. Two landslides are discussed as high speed and long runout cases. One is the Chengxi landslide in Beichuan County, and the other is the Donghekou landslide in Qingchuan County. In each case, the runout process and its impact on people and property were analyzed. The Chengxi landslide killed 1,600 people and destroyed numerous houses. The Donghekou landslide is a complex landslide–debris flow with a long runout. The debris flow scoured the bank of the Qingjiang River for a length of 2,400 m and subsequently formed a landslide dam. This landslide buried seven villages and killed more than 400 people.     

Preliminary investigation of some large landslides triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, Sichuan Province, China

The M _s 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake or “Great Sichuan Earthquake” occurred at 14:28 p.m. local time on 12 May 2008 in Sichuan Province, China. Damage by earthquake-induced landslides was an important part of the total earthquake damage. This report presents preliminary observations on the Hongyan Resort slide located southwest of the main epicenter, shallow mountain surface failures in Xuankou village of Yingxiu Town, the Jiufengchun slide near Longmenshan Town, the Hongsong Hydro-power Station slide near Hongbai Town, the Xiaojiaqiao slide in Chaping Town, two landslides in Beichuan County-town which destroyed a large part of the town, and the Donghekou and Shibangou slides in Qingchuan County which formed the second biggest landslide lake formed in this earthquake. The influences of seismic, topographic, geologic, and hydro-geologic conditions are discussed.     

Financing rapid community reconstruction after catastrophic disaster: lessons from the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in China

Catastrophic disasters can change the course of urban development and challenge the long-run sustainability of cities and regions. How to rapidly reconstruct communities impaired by catastrophic disaster is a world-wide challenge. The reconstruction after the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in China was an unusual case of very rapid reconstruction after a catastrophic disaster. Over US$147 billion was invested to rebuild the damaged areas within 3 years. The reconstruction was not simply building back what was destroyed, but was used as an opportunity to advance national goals for urbanization, rural transformation, and poverty reduction. In this article, we review how the reconstruction was planned, budgeted, and financed in the sociopolitical context of 2008 China. Particularly, we discuss two innovative programs, namely pair assistance and land-based financing. Despite the unique circumstances of China, lessons can be learned to speed up post-disaster reconstruction and urban development in other countries. Conversely, this case illustrates that a narrow focus on physical reconstruction may overlook broader economic and social issues.

     

Trenching exposures of the surface rupture of 2008 Mw 7.9 Wenchuan earthquake,China: Implications for coseismic deformation and paleoseismology along the Central Longmen Shan thrust fault

The May 12, 2008, Mw 7.9 Wenchuan earthquake was induced by failure of two of the major faults of the Longmen Shan thrust fault zone along the eastern margin of Tibet Plateau. Our study focused on trenches across the Yingxiu–Bichuan fault, the central fault in the Longmen Shan belt that has a coseismic surface break of more than 200 km long. Trenching excavation across the 2008 earthquake rupture on three representative sites reveals the styles and amounts of the deformation and paleoseismicity along the Longmen Shan fault. Styles of coseismic deformation along the 2008 earthquake rupture at these three sites represent three models of deformation along a thrust fault. Two of the three trench exposures reveal one pre-2008 earthquake event, which is coincident with the pre-existing scarps. Based on the observation of exposed stratigraphy and structures in the trenches and the geomorphic expressions on ground surface, we interpret the 2008 earthquake as a characteristic earthquake along this fault. The interval of reoccurrence of large earthquake events on the Central Longmen Shan fault (the Yingxiu–Beichuan fault) can be inferred to be about 11,000 years according to ¹⁴C and OSL dating. The amounts of the vertical displacement and shortening across the surface rupture during the 2008 earthquake are determined to be 1.0–2.8 m and 0.15–1.32 m, respectively. The shortening rate and uplift rate are then estimated to be 0.09–0.12 mm/yr and 0.18–0.2 mm/yr, respectively. It is indicated that the deformation is absorbed mainly not by shortening, but by uplift along the rupture during the 2008 earthquake.     

Interpretation of earthquake-induced landslides triggered by the 12 May 2008, M7.9 Wenchuan earthquake in the Beichuan area, Sichuan Province, China using satellite imagery and Google Earth

The 12 May 2008 M7.9 Wenchuan earthquake in the People’s Republic of China represented a unique opportunity for the international community to use commonly available GIS (Geographic Information System) tools, like Google Earth (GE), to rapidly evaluate and assess landslide hazards triggered by the destructive earthquake and its aftershocks. In order to map earthquake-triggered landslides, we provide details on the applicability and limitations of publicly available 3-day-post- and pre-earthquake imagery provided by GE from the FORMOSAT-2 (formerly ROCSAT-2; Republic of China Satellite 2). We interpreted landslides on the 8-m-resolution FORMOSAT-2 image by GE; as a result, 257 large landslides were mapped with the highest concentration along the Beichuan fault. An estimated density of 0.3 landslides/km² represents a minimum bound on density given the resolution of available imagery; higher resolution data would have identified more landslides. This is a preliminary study, and further study is needed to understand the landslide characteristics in detail. Although it is best to obtain landslide locations and measurements from satellite imagery having high resolution, it was found that GE is an effective and rapid reconnaissance tool.     

Stochastic finite-fault ground motion simulation for the Mw 6.7 earthquake in Lushan,China

Natural Hazards - The Ya’an, Sichuan Mw 6.7 earthquake occurred on April 20, 2013. In this article, the stochastic finite-fault method (EXSIM) based on dynamic corner frequency, proposed by...     

The progress of emergency response and rescue in China: a comparative analysis of Wenchuan and Lushan earthquakes

Earthquake emergency response and rescue (ERR) is a global challenge, but especially in developing countries. As a large earthquake-prone developing country, China’s experiences and lessons in ERR can provide a useful reference for other developing countries. In this article, China’s ERR progress is summarized by comparatively analyzing the Wenchuan and Lushan earthquakes, two major recent earthquake events in Sichuan Province. From a comprehensive investigation of the research, it can be concluded that emergency response speed, inter-organizational coordination, and relief resource mobilization are the three critical ERR indicators which can be further subdivided into sixteen sub-indicators. Using these indicators, the Wenchuan and Lushan earthquake ERR processes were comprehensively compared based on data collected from observations and interviews. The results showed that the response and rescue efforts at the Lushan earthquake were faster, more coordinated, and more orderly than those at the Wenchuan earthquake. In addition, the unified earthquake ERR system, the people-oriented principle, and the information disclosure mechanism were examined, which also revealed several major shortcomings, such as deficits in the adaptability to relief technologies, the lack of coordination between rescue organizations, and the lack of capabilities in the local communities. Finally, several recommendations are given for the practical improvement of and future research into the establishment of an effective ERR.     

四川汶川Ms 8.0地震报道

据国家地震台网测定,北京时间2008年5月12日14时28分,在四川汶川县(北纬31度,东经103.4度)发生Ms 8.0级地震（图1）。宁夏、青海、甘肃、河南、山西、陕西、山东、云南、湖南、湖北、上海、重庆等省市均有震感……。这次地震造成约7万人死亡,1.7万人失踪,38多万人受伤,令人震撼。重灾区14个县（市）主要公路全部瘫痪,主要铁路、水库和城镇遭受重大破坏,特别是北川县城和映秀镇成为一片废墟,这次地震是继唐山地震之后我国又一个死亡和损失巨大的毁灭性地震。根据中国地震局台网中心和美国地质调查局公布资料,汶川地震的震中位于映秀镇西南2~3 km处,滑动面西倾,倾角40~59°,属于逆冲断裂型地震。主震之后一月时间内,记录了51次≥5级的余震,沿整个龙门山中段和北段分布。根据远程地震台站资料的反演结果显示汶川地震产生的破裂带长度超过300 km,震源深度在16~19 km,属于典型的大陆浅源地震,地震类型为单震—余震型,地震破裂属于单向扩展型,从西南震中区向北东方向快速扩展（图2）。汶川地震的发震构造为龙门山中央断裂带（传统上称为映秀-北川断裂）,是这条断裂向东逆冲运动的结果,从更大的大陆动力学尺度上考虑,这次地震破裂事件是印度/欧亚大陆持续汇聚作用下青藏高原向东扩展的表现（图3）。众所周知,龙门山构造带横亘于四川盆地和青藏高原之间,主体由三条主边界断裂组成,从西到东分别命名为茂-汶断裂、映秀-北川断裂、安县-灌县断裂。这些断裂主体形成于三叠纪印支运动时期,在中新生代多次活动。晚新生代以来,伴随着青藏高原向东构造挤出,龙门山构造带中、南段强烈挤压复活和基底拆离,形成青藏东缘宏伟的逆冲推覆构造和飞来峰群,其东缘映秀断裂向东逆冲运动,使彭-灌杂岩体推覆在龙门山前陆带中生界地层之上,推覆距离在几公里以上。野外调查和震后航空照片解译结果初步分析表明,汶川地震不仅使映秀-北川断裂发生破裂,摧毁了沿断裂带建设的所有城镇与乡村,最大地震烈度达到XI级,同时也使龙门山山前断裂带（灌县-安县断裂带）发生破裂。地震产生的地表破裂构造表现为地表拱曲、挤压脊、地震鼓包、张裂隙等。地表破裂构造几何特征指示断层由西向东逆冲运动,同震垂向位移量在2.5~3 m,北川以北伴有明显的右旋走滑分量。两个地点在这次地震中受到特别关注：一个汶川县映秀镇,另一个是北川县城。映秀镇靠近震中很近,映秀断裂恰好经过该镇,从而成为断裂的命名地点。它坐落在岷江及其支流的交汇处,其中发育至少三级河流阶地。汶川地震使该镇毁灭（图版Ⅰ）。北川县城远离震中150 km之遥,但整个县城完全被地震毁灭,是汶川地震中破坏程度最大、人员伤亡最多的县城。北川县城是北川断裂的命名地点,该断裂切过县城所在的峡谷地带,呈NE-SW向延伸。这次强震产生的动能不仅使北川县城产生毁灭性破坏,同时由于地震动触发的崩滑等山地灾害,导致人员的重大伤亡（图版Ⅱ）。汶川地震带给科学家带来诸多新的思考。历史地震记录显示,龙门山断裂带在历史上没有发生过>7级地震,中小地震数量也少。而位于龙门山断裂带以北的岷山构造带和以南的川滇断裂带,在历史上均发生过震级≧7级的强震,如1933年叠溪7.5级地震和1976年松潘7.2级地震（图4）,说明龙门山构造带长期处于构造应力能量的累积过程中。全球定位系统（GPS）重复测量结果也显示,横穿该带现今地壳近东西向缩短率很小,数量级在1~2 mm/a,与青藏高原其他边缘相比相对较弱。这种小应变构造区孕育大地震,在世界其它大陆地区很少见,其机理和破裂过程需要科学家深入的研究和持续的探索。