Surface energy balance measurements at a tropical site in West Africa during the transition from dry to wet season

Summary In one of the first micrometeorological experiments at a tropical site in West Africa, direct measurements of all surface energy balance components were carried out. The experiment NIMEX-1 in Ile-Ife, Nigeria (7°33′ N, 4°33′ E), was conducted from February 19, 2004 to March 9, 2004, during the transition from the dry to the wet season. Three typical weather situations could be observed: firstly, monsoonal winds from the southwest blew over desiccated soils. Almost 100% of the available energy at the surface was transformed into sensible heat flux. Secondly, after several thundershowers, monsoonal winds swept over soils of increased water content, which led to a partitioning of the available energy corresponding to Bowen ratios between 0.3 and 0.5. Thirdly, harmattan winds advected dry dusty air from northern directions, which reduced the incoming shortwave radiation. Again, Bowen ratios range from 0.3 to 0.5 during daytime, whereas latent heat fluxes are still high during the night due to the advection of very dry air. No systematic non-closure of the surface energy balance could be found for the NIMEX-1 dataset. Unlike other experiments in Europe, most of the ogives for the sensible and latent heat flux were found to be convergent during NIMEX-1 in Ile-Ife. This can be attributed to the homogeneity of the surrounding bush, which lacks the defined borders found in agriculturally cultivated landscapes.     

Surface energy balance complexity in GCM land surface models

 A large number of land surface models (LSMs) have been designed for use in atmospheric general circulation models (GCMs) and GCM modellers therefore have a large number of options when selecting an LSM for their GCM. This study provides information to aid LSM design choices. A framework within which sensitivity to LSM design can be tested is presented and a series of experiments carried out to investigate how general aspects of surface energy balance parametrisation affect land-atmosphere evaporation. Firstly, it is shown that a combination of surface energy balance complexity and aerodynamic parametrisation can be used to explain the gross simulation differences obtained in the Project for Intercomparison of Land-surface Parameterization Schemes (PILPS). Secondly, a simple surface energy balance parametrisation with a constant surface resistance is found to be as appropriate as more complex method for simulating annual, monthly and seasonally averaged diurnal cycles of evaporation. However, complex aspects of surface energy balance parametrisation (canopy interception, bare ground evaporation and canopy resistance) are shown to contain substantial geographic and daily functionality that is not present in the simpler parametrisation. Received: 12 June 1998/Accepted: 24 December 1998     

Comparative measurements of the energy fluxes over a pine forest

During the summer of 1974, simultaneous heat flux measurements were made over a pine forest in three ways:

1. Using the Bowen ratio - Energy Budget technique, with the Bowen ratio estimated from temperature and humidity profiles measured with two pairs of wet-and dry-bulb thermometers at six levels.
2. Using the Bowen ratio - Energy Budget technique, with the Bowen ratio estimated from temperature and humidity measurements using pairs of wet-and dry-bulb thermometers mechanically interchanged every ten minutes.
3. Using the Eddy Correlation - Energy Budget technique, with a direct measurement of the sensible heat flux made by a simple eddy correlation apparatus.

Methods (b) and (c) are shown to give similar results apart from a systematic difference of about 25% in the measured sensible heat flux. This corresponds to an underestimate of the sensible heat flux by the eddy correlation apparatus. Although sometimes consistent with the other two methods, on occasions method (a) gave results which were significantly different from both (b) and (c). When differences occurred, they tended to be systematic and persistent over individual days; but they could change magnitude and sign if the particular sensors used at each level in the profile were rearranged. The experimental program used to collect these and previous data involved the rearrangement of sensors on a regular (two day) time scale. It is shown that, when averaged over several such rearrangements, method (a) produces median values of surface resistance which are more in keeping with those produced by the other methods. This is taken to imply that data previously gathered in this way can be used to produce physically reasonable results providing they are averaged over several days. On the basis of the results presented, recommendations are made on future experimental work in forest micrometeorology.     

The available energy over a Scots Pine plantation: What's up for partitioning?

Summary Errors influencing the calculation of the available energy above a forest are discussed. The main emphasis is put on the investigation of the problems affecting the measurement of net radiation. This is done by utilizing the data set of a surface energy balance experiment which was conducted in and above a Scots Pine plantation from May 11 to 22, 1992. During that Hartheimer Experiment (HartX) there were redundant measurements of net radiation using five different radiometers of three different designs. The initially fair agreement between the net radiometer readings was considerably improved by introducing different responsivities for the shortand longwave range. The mean deviations to the relative net radiation after correction vary between — 1.4 and 1.2 Wm^–2 with standard deviations between ± 5.4 and 6.6 Wm^–2. The total error referring to the available energy is estimated to be up to ± 36 Wm^–2 (± 6%) around midday decreasing to 10 Wm^–2 during nighttime.With 3 Figures     

Comparative measurements and seasonal variations in energy and carbon exchange over forest and pasture in South West Amazonia

Summary Comparative measurements of radiation flux components and turbulent fluxes of energy and CO₂ are made at two sites in South West Amazonia: one in a tropical forest reserve and one in a pasture. The data were collected from February 1999 to September 2002, as part of the Large Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia (LBA). During the dry seasons, although precipitation and specific humidity are greatly reduced, the soil moisture storage profiles down to 3.4m indicate that the forest vegetation continues to withdraw water from deep layers in the soil. For this reason, seasonal changes observed in the energy partition and CO₂ fluxes in the forest are small, compared to the large reductions in evaporation and photosynthesis observed in the pasture. For the radiation balance, the reflected short wave radiation increases by about 55% when changing from forest to pasture. Combined with an increase of 4.7% in long wave radiation loss, this causes an average reduction of 13.3% in net radiation in the pasture, compared to the forest. In the wet season, the evaporative fraction (E/R_n) at the pasture is 17% lower than at the forest. This difference increases to 24% during the dry season. Daytime CO₂ fluxes are 20–28% lower (in absolute values) in the pasture compared to the forest. The night-time respiration in the pasture is also reduced compared to the forest, with averages 44% and 57% lower in the wet and dry seasons, respectively. As the reduction in the nocturnal respiration is larger than the reduction in the daytime uptake, the combined effect is a 19–67% higher daily uptake of CO₂ in the pasture, compared to the forest. This high uptake of CO₂ in the pasture site is not surprising, since the growth of the vegetation is constantly renewed, as the cattle remove the biomass.     

Diagnosing the diurnal surface energy balance over the summer tundra at Princess Marie Bay from simple short-period measurements

Summary Using existing physical parameterizations, a new mathematical model is formulated to diagnose the diurnal variation of the energy fluxes and temperature on the snow-free tundra surface at Princess Marie Bay, Ellesmere Island, Canada. The input to the model consists of three meteorological variables which can be readily measured by an automatic weather station: incoming short-wave radiation, windspeed and screen level temperature. The model is based on the one-dimensional heat conduction equation for unfrozen soil, with surface heat exchange by short- and long-wave radiation and by convection and evaporation. A permafrost surface is used as a lower boundary condition. The model is formulated and tuned using a series of data from the Princess Marie Bay site. It is then tested using a separate data set from the same site and an independent data set from a nearby site.With 10 Figures     

半干旱草原下垫面能量平衡特征及土壤热通量对能量闭合率的影响

土壤热通量在半干旱草原下垫面能量平衡研究中极为重要,土壤热通量估计不够准确是导致地表能量不平衡的一个重要原因。利用2008年6—9月锡林郭勒草原主生长期地表辐射、通量和土壤温度梯度观测资料,研究中纬度半干旱草原下垫面地表能量平衡特征。首先,在分析能量平衡各分量月平均日变化特征的基础上,通过对土壤热流量板观测的5 cm深度土壤热通量(G)的相位前移,研究了土壤热通量相位滞后对地表能量平衡产生的影响;其次,利用谐波分析方法,通过计算地表土壤热通量(Gs),分析了地表到热流量板之间的土壤热量储存对地表能量平衡的影响。结果表明:(1)将土壤热通量相位前移30 min,湍流通量与可利用能量(Rn-G)线性回归的斜率从0.835增加到0.842,地表能量闭合率提高了0.7%,但仍有15.8%的能量不闭合;(2)考虑了地表到热流量板之间的土壤热量储存之后,湍流通量与可利用能量之间的回归斜率达到0.979,能量不闭合程度仅为2.1%。     

Analysis of surface energy balance closure over heterogeneous surfaces

Surface energy balance closure has been examined using eddy covariance measurements and other observations at one industrial and three agricultural sites near the Nakdong River during daytime. Energy balance closure was evaluated by calculating the long-term averaged energy balance ratio (EBR), the ratio of turbulent energy fluxes to available energy, and the statistical regression of turbulent energy fluxes against available energy using half-hourly data. The EBR of all sites ranges from 0.46 to 0.83 while the coefficient of determination (R ²) ranges from 0.37 to 0.77. The energy balance closure was relatively poor compared to homogeneous sites, indicating the influence of surface heterogeneity. Unmeasured heat storage terms also seem to play a role in the surface energy budget at the industrial and irrigated sites. The energy balance closure was better in conditions of high wind speed, low downward short wave radiation, and high friction velocity, which suggests the role of heat storage term and surface heterogeneity in surface energy balance at these sites. Spectrum analysis shows a sharp roll-off at the low frequency in co-spectrum, which indicates that low-frequency motions do not significantly contribute to turbulent fluxes. Both the spectra and cospectra in unstable conditions show a broad peak indicating the influence of multiple sizes of large eddies over heterogeneous sites. Most of ogive curves for the kinematic latent and sensible heat fluxes reach an asymptote within 30 minutes regardless of the EBR value, indicating that low frequency motion is not a main factor for energy imbalance. However, stationary eddies due to landscape heterogeneity still remains as a possible cause for energy imbalance.     

The surface energy balance of a snow cover: comparing measurements to two differentsimulation models

Summary  We compared two one-dimensional simulation models for heat and water fluxes in the soil-snow-atmosphere system with respect to their mathematical formulations of the surface heat exchange and the snow pack evolution. They were chosen as examples of a simple one-layer snow model and a more detailed multiple-layer snow model (SNTHERM). The snow models were combined with the same one-dimensional model for the heat and water balance of the underlying soil (CoupModel). Data from an arable field in central Sweden (Marsta), covering two years (1997–1999) of soil temperature, snow depth and eddy-correlation measurements were successfully compared with the models. Conditions with a snow pack deeper or shallower than 10 cm and bare soil resulted in similar discrepancies. The simulated net radiation and sensible heat flux were in good agreement with that measured during snow-covered periods, except for situations with snowmelt when the downward sensible heat flux was overestimated by 10–20 Wm⁻². The results showed that the uncertainties in parameter values were more important than the model formulation and that both models were useful in evaluating the limitations and uncertainties of the measurements. Received November 1, 1999 Revised April 20, 2000     

南海卫星遥感海表湍流热通量资料的评估

利用现场观测资料、OAFlux的湍流热通量,评估了JOFURO（Japanese Ocean Flux Data Sets with use of Remote Sensing Observations）、HOAPS-2（Hamburg Ocean Atmosphere Parameters and Fluxes from Satellite data version 2）、GSSTF-2（Goddard Satellite-Based Surface Turbulent Fluxes version 2）3种卫星资料在南海区域的表现。3套卫星资料可以说各有千秋,总体而言JOFURO和GSSTF-2资料的空间分布和时间变化与OAFlux资料整体上较一致,但是这两套资料都在很大程度上低估了海盆平均的潜热和感热,前者低估约10%~20%,后者则可以达到50%以上。HOAPS-2资料与现场观测资料有较好的一致性,但在时间变化上和其他资料的差异则较大,特别是感热方面,季节变化振幅、年际变化位相等都与其他资料不一致。通过比较我们发现,海南岛周边以及南海南部区域估算的潜热和感热释放偏小是造成整体偏小的主要原因。     

Radiation balance over a salt marsh

Linear relationships have been found between daytime incoming radiation and both net radiation and reflected radiation over a Spartina alterniflora salt marsh at North Inlet, S.C., during the summer. On the average, using total daytime values, net radiation was 70 ± 9% and reflected radiation was 9 ± 1% of incoming radiation.     

Surface turbulent flux measurements over the Loess Plateau for a semi-arid climate change study

In order to provide high quality data for climate change studies, the data quality of turbulent flux measurements at the station of SACOL (Semi-Arid Climate & Environment Observatory of Lanzhou University), which is located on a semi-arid grassland over the Loess Plateau in China, has been analyzed in detail. The effects of different procedures of the flux corrections on CO₂, momentum, and latent and sensible heat fluxes were assessed. The result showed that coordinate rotation has a great influence on the momentum flux but little on scalar fluxes. For coordinate rotation using the planar fit method, different regression planes should be determined for different wind direction sectors due to the heterogeneous nature of the ground surface. Sonic temperature correction decreased the sensible heat flux by about 9%, while WPL correction (correction for density fluctuations) increased the latent heat flux by about 10%. WPL correction is also particularly important for CO₂ fluxes. Other procedures of flux corrections, such as the time delay correction and frequency response correction, do not significantly influence the turbulent fluxes. Furthermore, quality tests on stationarity and turbulence development conditions were discussed. Parameterizations of integral turbulent characteristics (ITC) were tested and a specific parameterization scheme was provided for SACOL. The ITC test on turbulence development conditions was suggested to be applied only for the vertical velocity. The combined results of the quality tests showed that about 62%–65% of the total data were of high quality for the latent heat flux and CO₂ flux, and as much as about 76% for the sensible heat flux. For the momentum flux, however, only about 35% of the data were of high quality.     

Surface energy and radiation budget over a tropical station: An observational study

This study attempts to understand the variations in the radiation and surface energy budget parameters during days of occurrence and non occurrence of convective activity such as thunderstorms at Ranchi (23°25??N, 85°26??E), India using the special experimental data sets obtained during pre-monsoon month of May, 2008. For this purpose five continuous thunderstorm days (TD) of varying intensity, along with three non-thunderstorm days (NTD) preceding the TD are considered. Thunderstorms occurred at site are multi-cellular in nature. Change of wind direction and strong gusty winds are noticed in TD cases. Pre-dominant wind direction is south westerly for the TD; it is northwesterly during NTD. Sudden drop of air temperature and rise of relative humidity and rise/drop in atmospheric pressure is noticed during TD are found to be proportional to the intensity of thunderstorm event. More partitioning of net radiation (QN) is in to latent heat flux (QE) and the contribution of sensible heat flux (QH) and soil heat flux (QG) are same during TD. But in the NTD more partitioning of QN is in to QH followed by QG that of QE. Significant differences in radiation and energy budget components are noticed during TD and NTD events.     

我国华南3月份降水年代际变化的特征

利用1951～2005年华南3月份降水资料、太平洋年代际振荡(PDO)指数以及NCEP再分析资料,对华南3月份降水年代际变化特征、及其对应的大尺度环流以及与PDO的关系进行了分析。结果表明,华南3月份降水存在显著的年代际变化特征,并且Mann-Kendal突变检验表明华南3月份降水在1978年左右发生年代际突变,从之前的降水偏少转变为降水偏多。我国华南3月份降水与PDO有着显著的相关。进一步研究表明,在年代际降水偏少时期,PDO处于负位相(北太平洋海温偏高,中东太平洋海温偏低),北太平洋海平面气压场和高度场偏高,亚洲大陆海平面气压场和高度场偏低,赤道西太平洋到赤道东印度洋附近的海平面气压场偏低,赤道辐合带附近地区的高度场偏低,东亚对流层大气偏暖,西太平洋副热带高压偏东,东亚高空急流偏北,东亚Hadley环流偏弱。在年代际降水偏多时期,PDO处于正位相,情况则与降水偏少时期相反。     

中国地面相对湿度非均一性检验及订正

利用加拿大环境部气候研究中心研发的PMTred和PMFT方法,选取均一的邻近站为参考站,使用相关系数权重平均构建参考序列,结合元数据信息,对1951-2014年中国2400多个国家级地面站月平均相对湿度进行了非均一性检验与订正,并分析了造成相对湿度序列非均一的主要原因。结果表明,中国地面相对湿度资料存在较严重的非均一问题,68%的台站存在断点,人工观测转自动观测、迁站和时次变化是造成序列非均一的主要原因。整套资料负订正量所占比例较高,订正范围主要集中在-5%～0之间,这种负订正量与人工转自动观测后相对湿度观测值偏低有密切关系。这也使得订正后中国平均相对湿度趋势与订正前存在明显差异,订正前中国平均相对湿度呈下降趋势,订正后相对湿度没有趋势性变化。     

南方普降大雪 华南持续干旱——2005年1月

1月份，全国大部地区降水接近常年同期或偏少，其中华南东部部分地区降水较常年偏少8成至1倍，旱情趋于严重；云南西南部旱情有所抬头。长江以南出现大范围雨雪天气，湘、赣、鄂、贵等地遭受雪灾。月平均气温较常年同期偏高，但地区分布差异显著，江南以及华南等地出现较为严重的冰(霜)冻灾害，农作物生产受到一定影响。     

Effects of the soil heat flux estimates on surface energy balance closure over a semi-arid grassland

Soil heat flux is important for surface energy balance (SEB), and inaccurate estimation of soil heat flux often leads to surface energy imbalance. In this paper, by using observations of surface radiation fluxes and soil temperature gradients at a semi-arid grassland in Xilingguole, Inner Mongolia, China from June to September 2008, the characters of the SEB for the semi-arid grassland were analyzed. Firstly, monthly averaged diurnal variations of SEB components were revealed. A 30-min forward phase displacement of soil heat flux (G) observed by a fluxplate at the depth of 5-cm below the soil surface was conducted and its effect on the SEB was studied. Secondly, the surface soil heat flux (G _s) was computed by using harmonic analysis and the effect of the soil heat storage between the surface and the fluxplate on the SEB was examined. The results show that with the 30-min forward phase displacement of observed G, the slope of the ordinary linear regression (OLR) of turbulent fluxes (H+LE) against available energy (R _n-G) increased from 0.835 to 0.842, i.e., the closure ratio of SEB increased by 0.7%, yet energy imclosure of 15.8% still existed in the SEB. When G _s, instead of G was used in the SEB equation, the slope of corresponding OLR of (H+LE) against (R _n-G _s) reached 0.979, thereby the imclosure ratio of SEB was reduced to only 2.1%.     

华南海雾研究进展

从海雾的气候特征、生消机制、微物理化学特征、遥感监测和模式预报等方面,回顾近年来开展的华南地区海雾研究。结果表明：华南海雾研究已经取得了许多重要的研究成果,但对于华南海雾的年际、年代际特征,华南不同地区的海雾微物理化学特征以及海面海雾与陆面海雾观测对比研究还不够,遥感监测及模式预报方面还有一定欠缺。为了对华南海雾有更加深入的认识,这些方面的研究需要进一步加强。