Quantification of diagenesis in Cenozoic sharks: Elemental and mineralogical changes

Diagenesis of bone during fossilization is pervasive, however, the extent of this process varies with depositional environment. This study quantifies diagenesis of shark vertebral centra through analysis of a suite of physical and chemical characters including crystallinty index (CI), carbonate content, and elemental concentrations. Although shark skeletons are initially cartilaginous, the soft cartilage of the vertebral centra is replaced with carbonate hydroxyapatite during growth. Nine vertebral centra are analyzed from lamnoid (Lamnoidea) sharks ranging in age from the cretaceous to recent using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS). The variables CI, carbonate content, rare earth element (REE) concentrations, Ca/P, Ba/Ca, Sr/Ba, (La/Yb)_N, (La/Y)_N, (La/Yb)_N vs. (La/Sm)_N, La/Yb, and Ce anomalies elucidate the diagenetic and depositional environments of the seven fossil vertebral centra. The two extant centra demonstrate the initial, unaltered end-member conditions for these variables. Two fossil vertebral centra (Carcharodon megalodon and Isurus hastalis) demonstrate a strong terrestrial influence during diagenesis (distinctive flattening of shale-normalized REE patterns) that masked the seawater signal. Three centra (Carcharodon auriculatus, Carcharodon angustidens, and Creotxyrhina mantelli) have indications of some terrestrial influx evident by some flattening of the REE patterns relative to seawater. The terrestrial influence in these five shark centra (C. megalodon, I. hastalis, C. auriculatus, C. angustidens and C. mantelli) are interpreted to represent a primarily nearshore habitat for these species. In contrast, the two Otodus obliquus centra have REE patterns that represent the original seawater signal and have no indications of terrigenous input. These results indicate that fossil shark vertebral centra have the potential to understand diagenesis and reconstruct paleooceanographic environments.     

Ground motion amplification due to shallow cavities in nonlinear soils

Subsurface cavities or stiff inclusions represent mechanical discontinuities for seismic waves propagating in soils. They modify the propagation pattern of seismic waves and alter soil response in correspondence to the ground level or building foundations. In the literature, different analytical and numerical solutions have been proposed to account for the effect of underground cavities or inclusions on the motion generated by P, S or R waves. In these former studies, the subsoil was assimilated to a homogeneous, isotropic and linear elastic halfspace containing one or more cavities. In the present study, the effect of subsurface cavities on ground motion amplification has been analysed accounting for soil stiffness degradation and associated damping increase with increasing levels of shear strains, a fundamental aspect of soil behaviour under earthquakes. The analysed model was inspired to a real case represented by the village of Castelnuovo (Italy), which during the 2009 Abruzzo earthquake suffered huge damage. The main shock (6 April 2009) caused the collapse of 50 % of the whole built environment. The historical centre of Castelnuovo rises on a hill. In its subsoil, there are many cavities with roofs 2–3 m below the ground level. The longitudinal NW–SE section of the hill has been investigated by 2D nonlinear site response analyses. A preliminary site response analysis was performed without modelling cavities, to identify ground motion amplification due to mere stratigraphic and topographic factors. The numerical model was later refined inserting: (1) a single cavity below the hilltop, (2) multiple cavities placed below the ground surface of the hill and (3) multiple cavities filled with concrete (inclusions). The performed study highlights the important role exerted by underground cavities on the ground motion computed at the hill surface. This effect should be properly considered for both microzonation studies and the correct determination of the seismic actions on specific buildings.     

土壤和沉积物中NOM稳定性矿物学机制研究的理论与方法

土壤和沉积物中天然有机质(NOM)稳定性问题受到关注,主要是因为NOM的稳定性直接影响到大气中CO2的平衡与全球气候变化。此外,天然有机质还影响着土壤和沉积物中矿物的表面反应性、污染物的环境行为与生物有效性。因此,本综述在详细介绍土壤和沉积物中NOM稳定性矿物学机制研究的理论与方法的同时,也简略介绍了NOM的组成结构与反应性,并着重强调NOM/矿物微界面过程作用机制的重要性。许多研究表明,土壤和沉积物中NOM稳定性的矿物学机制主要包括矿物表面吸附和物理包裹。本综述目的是,介绍矿物保护的稳定NOM的分离、特性及其分析测定方法与技术,并且强调NOM稳定性矿物学保护机制系统性研究的重要性,以搞清矿物学保护机制在土壤和沉积物中NOM稳定保持中的贡献与重要性以及矿物学保护机制对天然有机质稳定性的调控作用,从而提高对土壤和沉积物环境生态的地球化学、矿物学的认识水平。     

Changes in the content and composition of pedogenic iron oxyhydroxides in a chronosequence of soils in southern California

Studies of the pedogenic iron oxyhydroxides in suites of latest Holocene to middle Pleistocene soils formed on fluvial deposits of the transverse ranges, southern California, indicate that the content and composition of iron oxyhydroxide change in a systematic manner. Analysis of total secondary free iron oxides (dithionite extractable, Fe₂O₃d) and ferrihydrite (oxalate extractable, Fe₂O₃o) shows that (1) a single-logarithmic model (Y = a + b log X) or double logarithmic model (log Y = a + b log X), where Y is the total mass of pedogenic Fe oxides (g/cm²-soil column) and X is soil age, describes the rate of increase in Fe₂O₃d with time; (2) the Fe₂O₃d content correlates linearly with soil reddening and clay content; (3) the $\text{Fe}{}_2\text{O}{}_3\text{o}\text{Fe}{}_2\text{O}{}_3\text{d}$ ratio, which indicates the degree of Fe oxide crystallinity, is moderately high to very high (0.22–0.58) in middle Holocene to latest Pleistocene soils and progressively decreases to less than 0.10 in older soils; (4) the value of the $\text{Fe}{}_2\text{O}{}_3\text{o}\text{Fe}{}_2\text{O}{}_3\text{d}$ ratio also appears to be infuenced by climate; and (5) temporal changes in Fe oxide content and mineralogy are accompanied by related, systematic changes in clay mineralogy and organic matter content. These relationships are attributed to a soil environment that must initially favor ferrihydrite precipitation and/or organic matter-Fe complexation. Subsequent transformation to hematite causes increasingly intense reddening and a concomitant decrease in the $\text{Fe}{}_2\text{O}{}_3\text{o}\text{Fe}{}_2\text{O}{}_3\text{d}$ ratio. The results demonstrate that iron oxide analysis is useful for numerical age studies of noncalcic soils and shows potential as an indicator of paleoclimates.     

Modeling reactive transport in sediments subject to bioturbation and compaction

Current bioturbation models are marked by confusion in their treatment of porosity. Different equations appear to be needed for different biodiffusion mechanisms, i.e., interphase mixing, where biological activity causes bulk mixing of sediment affecting both tracer and porosity profiles, versus intraphase mixing, where the solid components are intermixed, but the porosity is left unchanged. Another issue is whether the model depends upon the particle type with which tracers are associated, e.g., ¹³⁷Cs on small clay particles versus ²¹⁰Pb on larger grains. This uncertainty has lead to conflicting conservation equations for radiotracers, and in particular, to the question whether the porosity should be placed inside or outside of the differential term that governs the biodiffusive flux. We have reexamined this situation in the context of multiphase, multicomponent continuum theory. Most importantly, we prove that under the assumption of steady-state porosity, there exists only one correct form of the steady-state conservation equation for a radiotracer, regardless of biodiffusion mechanism and particle type, i.e.,

     

Assessment of slope stability in cohesive soils due to a rainfall

The primary focus in this work is on proposing a methodology for the assessment of stability of natural/engineered slopes in clayey soils subjected to water infiltration. In natural deposits of fine‐grained soils, the presence of water in the vicinity of minerals results in an interparticle bonding. This effect cannot be easily quantified as it involves complex chemical interactions at the micromechanical level. Here, the evolution of strength properties, including the apparent cohesion resulting from initial suction at the irreducible fluid saturation, is described by employing the framework of chemoplasticity. The paper provides first the formulation of the problem; this involves specification of the constitutive relation, development of an implicit return mapping scheme, and the outline of a coupled transient formulation. The framework is then applied to examine the stability of a slope subjected to a prolonged period of intensive rainfall. It is shown that the water infiltration may trigger the loss of stability resulting from the degradation of material properties. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pb-concentrations and Pb-isotope ratios in soils collected along an east–west transect across the United States

Analytical results for Pb-concentrations and isotopic ratios from ca. 150 samples of soil A horizon and ca. 145 samples of soil C horizon collected along a 4000-km east–west transect across the USA are presented. Lead concentrations along the transect show: (1) generally higher values in the soil A-horizon than the C-horizon (median 21 vs. 16.5 mg/kg), (2) an increase in the median value of the soil A-horizon for central to eastern USA (Missouri to Maryland) when compared to the western USA (California to Kansas) (median 26 vs. 20 mg/kg) and (3) a higher A/C ratio for the central to eastern USA (1.35 vs. 1.14). Lead isotopes show a distinct trend across the USA, with the highest ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb ratios occurring in the centre (Missouri, median A-horizon: 1.245; C-horizon: 1.251) and the lowest at both coasts (e.g., California, median A-horizon: 1.195; C-horizon: 1.216). The soil C-horizon samples show generally higher ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb ratios than the A-horizon (median C-horizon: 1.224; A-horizon: 1.219). The ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb-isotope ratios in the soil A horizon show a correlation with the total feldspar content for the same 2500-km portion of the transect from east-central Colorado to the Atlantic coast that shows steadily increasing precipitation. No such correlation exists in the soil C horizon. The data demonstrate the importance of climate and weathering on both Pb-concentration and ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb-isotope ratios in soil samples and natural shifts thereof in the soil profile during soil-forming processes.     

Microbial community changes in contaminated soils in response to phenanthrene amendment

Leachate and reclaimed wastewater have become the important sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils. However, the information on bioremediation of leachate and reclaimed wastewater-contaminated soils is still lacking. Identification of changes in microbial structure or of enriched genera related to biodegradation could aid identification of particular organisms or consortia capable of degrading polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in these contaminated soils. In this study, terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism, coupled with 16S Ribosomal ribonucleic acid clone library analysis, was applied to investigate the composition of bacterial community in leachate-contaminated soil or grassland soil irrigated reclaimed wastewater and the response to phenanthrene amendment. Results showed that phenanthrene amendment had significant but different impacts on microbial community structure, dependent on soil source. Several greatly enriched terminal restriction fragments with phenanthrene biodegradation were identified. Moreover, genus rhizobacteria, possibly linked to phenanthrene biodegradation, was firstly reported in this study. This work might provide some new insights into bioremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons-contaminated soils.     

Geochemical and mineralogical evidence for Sahara and Sahel dust additions to Quaternary soils on Lanzarote,eastern Canary Islands,Spain

Africa is the most important source of dust in the world today, and dust storms are frequent on the nearby Canary Islands. Previous workers have inferred that the Sahara is the most important source of dust to Canary Islands soils, with little contribution from the Sahel region. Soils overlying a late Quaternary basalt flow on Lanzarote, Canary Islands, contain, in addition to volcanic minerals, quartz and mica, exotic to the island’s bedrock. Kaolinite in the soils also likely has an exotic origin. Trace‐element geochemistry shows that the soils are derived from varying proportions of locally derived basalt and African dust. Major‐element geochemistry, clay mineralogy and interpretation of satellite imagery suggest that dust additions to the Canary Islands come not only from the Sahara Desert, but also from the Sahel region.     

Distribution, lithotypes and mineralogical study of newly formed thermogenic travertines in Northern Euboea and Eastern Central Greece

In the northwestern part of Euboea Island and the neighbouring part of the mainland in eastern central Greece, many hot springs exist. We collected and analysed the newly formed material around the hot springs. The samples were studied at the lab with X-Ray Diffraction, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS). In all cases the studied materials were thermogenic travertine presenting many different lithotypes. The studied travertine deposits consist mainly of aragonite and calcite, but in some cases, as the main mineral phase, an amorphous hydrous ferric oxyhydroxide, probably ferrihydrite (creating a laminated iron-rich travertine deposit), was identified. The lithotypes that were identified were of great variety (spicular, shrubs, etc). Some of them (pisoliths, rafts and foam rock types) are quite rare and one of them (framework type) is described for the first time. Morphological data and field observations suggest possible inorganic and organic controls on carbonate precipitation. Similar lithotypes have been recorded at Mammoth hot springs, Yellowstone National Park in USA and at Rapolano Terme, Italy.     

液化地基侧向流动引起的桩基础破坏分析

20世纪60年代以来,流动地基中的桩基础的震害现象和抗震设计受到了工程师和研究者的广泛关注。对侧向流动地基中桩基础的一些典型震害现象和其可能震害原因的归纳和分析,显示目前研究仍不能完全解释侧向流动地基中桩基础的震害现象。选取新泻地震中昭和大桥桩基础破坏案例采用p-y方法进行计算,分析地基侧向流动引起的桩基础破坏的影响因素。计算结果显示,合理地描述液化砂土的p-y曲线模型在侧向流动地基桩基础分析中起到关键作用。对于侧向流动地基中桩基础的震害机制的进一步理解和抗震设计,有赖于更为合理和有效地液化砂土中的p-y模型的发展。     

Structural and mineralogical evaluation of an experimentally produced impact crater in granite

A crater 30 cm in diameter and 4.4 cm in depth was produced upon impact of an aluminium sphere with a homogeneous granite target. The volume excavated was 748 cm³, the mass ejected 1933 g. The crater geometry is compared with previous laboratory experiments. Mineralogical investigations revealed that shock induced, microscopic fracturing is lowest in the direction of uniaxial compression, followed by a 45° profile. Due to reflections of stress waves at the free surface, the horizontal profile displayed the highest fracture index. Kinking of biotite was very common in samples close to the crater walls (≈ 50 kb). However it faded out at a distance which corresponds to approximately 10 kb. This seems to be the lower pressure limit for the formation of kink bands under shock conditions.     

Biomarkers record environmental changes along an altitudinal transect in the wettest place on Earth

The combined application of plant wax δD (δD_wax) and branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (brGDGTs) has been suggested as proxy for paleo-elevation. In some of the altitudinal transects studied so far, nonlinear precipitation gradients, large variations in seasonality, soil and vegetation types introduced substantial amounts of scatter in the relationship between these proxies and altitude. To further evaluate the principal functioning of the proxies, δD_wax and brGDGTs were analysed in surface soils along an altitude gradient (from 28 m up to 1865 m a.s.l.) in Meghalaya, India. The transect experiences limited seasonal temperature variation and receives very high monsoonal precipitation along the whole elevation gradient. The δD_wax show a significant relation with altitude (r² = 0.72). The additional fits with stream water δD (r² = 0.72) and modelled precipitation δD (r² = 0.72) indicate that δD_wax tracks the altitude effect on precipitation. Also the brGDGT distribution shows a correlation with altitude, reflecting the decrease in temperature with higher elevation (r² = 0.65, or r² = 0.66 using the original and recalibrated methylation of branched tetraethers-cyclisation of branched tetraethers (MBT–CBT) proxy). Application of the original MBT–CBT calibration generates calculated air temperatures that overestimate measured air temperature by ∼6 °C, whereas temperatures similar to measured are obtained with the revised calibration. These results indicate that δD_wax and brGDGTs may faithfully and accurately track environmental changes with altitude for transects where seasonal and diurnal temperature variability is relatively limited. Furthermore, proxy application to locations that experience high rainfall increases the suitability as climatic indicators, as it excludes soil moisture availability as a limiting factor.     

Inception of the Northern European ice sheet due to contrasting ocean and insolation forcing

About 115,000 yr ago the last interglacial reached its terminus and nucleation of new ice-sheet growth was initiated. Evidence from the northernmost Nordic Seas indicate that the inception of the last glacial was related to an intensification of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) in its northern limb. The enhanced AMOC, combined with minimum Northern hemisphere insolation, introduced a strong sea-land thermal gradient that, together with a strong wintertime latitudinal insolation gradient, increased the storminess and moisture transport to the high Northern European latitudes at a time when the Northern hemisphere summer insolation approached its minimum.     

Features of cross-stratified units due to random and other changes in bed forms

Because cross-stratified units depend upon the movement of bed forms, any change in the shape, size and direction of travel of the forms is reflected in the geometry of the units, notably in their relative length, breadth and thickness, mode of termination upstream and downstream, and internal discontinuities. Most models of cross-stratification so far published are unsatisfactory because they ignore the fact that real bed forms are subject to change. The changes are thought to occur at two levels of detail independently. Those at the coarser level depend on the essential non-uniformity, unsteadiness and multi-directionality of natural flows, when assessed on a suitably large scale. At the finer level, change is related to the random behaviour of individual bed forms as they interact with the adjacent flow, and it proceeds even when the flow is an equilibrium one overall. Flume experiments on current ripples show that many features of cross-stratified units can be explained by the random behaviour of bed forms. The finite streamwise length of such units, and their upstream and downstream erosional termination, is governed by the life-span (finite) of individual ripples and by the extent of net deposition on the bed. Internal discontinuities, closely resembling features described as reactivation structures, were also found to depend on the relative motion of ripples, no change of flow discharge and stage being involved. The degree of relative motion in the ripple assemblages was substantial, as measured by the fluctuating component of the ripple celerity.     

低幅值小应变振动下土体弹性刚度的非线性特征与表述方法

随着高速铁路建设的兴起,轨道以及沿线附近建筑物承受低幅值小应变振动荷载的作用。对于小应变振动下土体的有限元计算,如何确定连接应力和应变之间纽带的刚度张量E,对于建立合理的预测模型来分析高速铁路轨道以及沿线建筑物的沉降变形至关重要。低幅值小应变振动下剪切模量G和阻尼比D随剪应变幅值的变化是反映土体刚度及阻尼特征最重要的两个参数。通过共振柱试验发现,振动荷载作用下土体的剪切模量G必须通过振动应变幅值和固结围压共同来确定,即使在小应变（剪应变幅值10-6相似文献   

青藏公路工程活动对沿线植被覆盖的影响

利用2000-2012年的MODIS 增强植被指数（Enhanced Vegetation Index,EVI）数据,结合研究区3个气象台站长期的气象数据,分析了青藏公路沿线植被变化总体趋势,以及不同整修措施对周边植被覆盖带来的不同影响.通过实地考察,选取了16个受工程活动影响的典型路边样方,3个铁路边样方和8个远离公路铁路的自然样方,对比路边和自然样方,分析植被的自我恢复能力以及4个主要影响因子.结果表明：青藏公路沿线植被覆盖变化是在整个气候变化的背景下,叠加了工程活动的影响.植被的恢复能力与其所在路段的地形、植被覆盖度、气候条件、以及工程活动的强度均有关系,抑制植被生长的因素越多,植被恢复越慢.     

邻近建筑物的滨海土岩组合基坑支护结构变形分析

随着城市地下空间的开发利用,出现越来越多邻近地下综合管廊基坑开挖的工程案例,对管廊结构安全及防水性能产生重要影响。以厦门某邻近既有双舱综合管廊的基坑开挖项目为研究背景,采用PLAXIS 3D建立三维有限元分析模型,基于HS-small小应变土体本构模型,模拟基坑开挖过程对综合管廊的影响。研究结果表明,开挖后,邻近综合管廊沿轴线方向的变形受力模式可分为平移转动区、相对扭转区和位移约束区3个特征区域。基坑中部附近管廊发生朝向基坑的平移和绕轴转动,基坑边界附近管廊发生相对扭转,远离基坑区域管廊的位移受土体约束而相对静止。位于平移转动区和相对扭转区内的管廊截面发生朝向基坑的剪切变形,管廊顶板相对底板发生朝向基坑的水平相对移动;邻近基坑一侧市政舱顶板和远离基坑一侧侧墙下半部分发生较大挠曲变形。管廊与基坑间距对3个变形特征区域的分布没有显著影响,但管廊离基坑越近会使得管廊结构的变形程度越大。     

Prediction of tidal excursion length in estuaries due to the environmental changes

Tidal excursion is an important parameter that indicates hydraulic and mixing characteristics of estuarine environments. Prediction of the tidal excursion length provides a proper tool for environmental management of estuaries. In this study, the governing equations of the salinity transport were scaled first to recognize the effective dimensionless parameters of tidal excursion length. Then, a laterally averaged two-dimensional numerical model called CE-QUAL-W2 was used as a virtual laboratory to simulate the salinity intrusion length. Existing field data of Limpopo estuary, as a case study, was used for calibration and verification of the model and reasonable agreement was observed between the model results and the field data. Finally, the verified model was used to assess the influences of the governing parameters. The results showed that simple power functions can be used to describe the effects of dimensionless parameters obtained by scaling of the governing equations. As a result, a new formula in form of a power function was derived to predict the tidal excursion length based on the geometric and hydrodynamic characteristics of alluvial estuaries. Comparison of the computed tidal excursion lengths using the derived formula with the observed measurements in several estuaries showed the robustness of the developed formula.     

Atmospheric pressure changes due to volcanic eruptions and possible water level fluctuations

The data of Reed (1983) are analysed to produce the following empirical equations for the amplitude p ₀ (overall fluctuation) in Pascals of the air pressure wave associated with a volcanic eruption of volume V km³ or a nuclear explosion of strength M Mt: Here s is the distance from the source in km. $$\begin{gathered} \log _{10} p_0 = 4.44 + \log _{10} V - 0.84\log _{10} s \hfill \\ {\text{ }} = 3.44 + \log _{10} M - 0.84\log _{10} s. \hfill \\ \end{gathered} $$ Garrett's (1970) theory is examined on the generation of water level fluctuations by an air pressure wave crossing a water depth discontinuity such as a continental shelf. The total amplitude of the ocean wave is determined to be where c ₂ ¹ = gh ₁, c ₂ ² = gh ₂, g is acceleration of gravity, h ₁ and h ₂ are the water depths on the ocean and shore side of the depth discontinuity, c is the speed of propagation of the air pressure wave, and ? is the water density. $$B = \left[ {\frac{{c_2^2 }}{{c^2 - c_2^2 }} + \frac{{c^2 (c_1 - c_2 )}}{{(c - c_1 )(c^2 - c_2^2 )}}} \right]\frac{{p_0 }}{{g\varrho }}$$ It is calculated that a 10 km³ eruption at Mount St. Augustine would cause a 460 Pa air pressure wave and a discernible water level fluctuation at Vancouver Island of several cm amplitude.