An experimental study on erodibility of intertidal sediments in the Yellow River delta

The erodibility of intertidal sediments is an important factor affecting coastal erosion.In July and October 2008,in situ measurement of erodibility of the surficial sediment were conducted using a recirculating flume at 20 tidal flat experiment sites along the seashore of the Yellow River delta.At the same time,the characteristics of sand ripples and biogenic features on the tidal flat were observed and the physical-mechanical sediment properties such as bulk density,water content,grain size distribution,plasticity,penetration resistance,shear strength and compressibility,were measured.By field measurement,it is obtained that the critical erosion shear stress of the surficial sediment on the tidal flat varies between 0.088 Pa and 0.254 Pa.The factors influencing sediment erodibility are complicated because of physical and biological reworking after the sediment deposited.There’s a positive correlation between shear strength and critical erosion shear stress.The burrowing crabs’ activities changed the sediment microtopography and made the sediment have greater roughness,and that is one possible reason for the higher erodibility.The formation of scour pits on the tidal flat correlates with the heterogeneous erodibility of the surficial sediment.     

Inter-comparison between five devices for determining erodability of intertidal sediments

Five erosion devices were compared using five intertidal estuarine sites covering a range of sediment stability from newly settled mud to very cohesive mud at the margins of a saltmarsh. The erosion devices use different methods of fluid shearing from horizontal currents/bed shear stresses to vertical water jets, and have different ‘footprint’ areas. The devices included: (1) the annular flumes (AFs—diameter 64 cm; footprint area 0.17 m²) of the Plymouth Marine Laboratory (PML); (2) PML's mini-annular flume (MAF—diameter 19 cm; area 0.026 m²); (3) the annular mini-flume (AMF—diameter 30.5 cm; area 0.032 m²) of the National Oceanography Centre Southampton (NOC); (4) NOC's Cohesive Strength Meter (CSM—diameter 3 cm; area 0.0007 m²); (5) NOC's EROMES (ER—diameter 10 cm; area 0.0079 m²). The quantification of threshold shear stress for bed erosion (τ_e) and sediment erosion rate was complemented by the measurement of physical, chemical and biological properties of the sediment (grain size, bulk density, water content, organic content, chlorophyll a, carbohydrates, macrofauna). The results demonstrated a significant correlation (r²=0.98) between the PML AF (laboratory measurement of undisturbed cored sediment) and PML MAF (in situ) for measurement of erosion thresholds for bed sediment. However, there were no significant correlations between AFs, the CSM and EROMES. There were no consistent correlations with physical or biological sediment properties due to the spatially unrelated sites and the marked differences in benthic assemblages. The sources of differences and the lack of correlations between erosion devices were due to several factors, including operational procedures (e.g., sediment resuspension during filling with water), definition of erosion threshold, the nature of the force applied to the bed, and method of calibration. In contrast to the CSM and EROMES, both types of AFs were able to record significant differences in the erodability of soft sediments from four sites. This indicates that the CSM and EROMES may not be very effective at measuring the differences in erosion thresholds of soft estuarine sediments.     

Laboratory and theoretical evaluation of impact of packing density,particle shape,and uniformity coefficient on erodibility of coarse-grained soil particles

Sedimentation – including erosion, transport, and deposition of coarse-grained particles – is a primary and growing environmental, engineering, and agricultural issue around the world. Soil erosion occurs when the hydrodynamic force induced by flowing water exceeds the geotechnical resistance of soils, as measured by critical shear stress for initiation of soil-particle motion. Even though various quantitative methods have been suggested with respect to different types of soil, the most widely accepted formula to estimate critical shear stress for coarse-grained soil is a direct function of the median grain size of the soil particles; however, the erosion resistance of soils also varies with other geotechnical properties, such as packing density, particle shape, and uniformity coefficient. Thus, in this study, a combined rolling–lift model for particle detachment was derived based on theoretical analysis. A series of experimental flume tests were conducted with specimens prepared with standard soil types, as well as laboratory-prepared mixtures of coarse-grained soil to validate the theoretical model and determine the effect of other geotechnical properties on the erosion characteristics of coarse grains, coupled with the effect of median particle size. The results indicated that the median grain size is the primary variable determining the resistance of coarse grains, but the critical shear stress also varies with the packing density of the soil matrix. In addition, angular particles show more erosion resistance than rounded particles, and the erosion potential of a soil decreased when the grain is well graded (higher value of uniformity coefficient). Additionally, regression analysis was performed to quantify the effect of each parameter on the critical shear stress of coarse grains. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sediment erodability in sediment transport modelling: Can we account for biota effects?

Sediment erosion results from hydrodynamic forcing, represented by the bottom shear stress (BSS), and from the erodability of the sediment, defined by the critical erosion shear stress and the erosion rate. Abundant literature has dealt with the effects of biological components on sediment erodability and concluded that sediment processes are highly sensitive to the biota. However, very few sediment transport models account for these effects. We provide some background on the computation of BSS, and on the classical erosion laws for fine sand and mud, followed by a brief review of biota effects with the aim of quantifying the latter into generic formulations, where applicable.     

Two-dimensional numerical simulation of sediment transport using improved critical shear stress methods

Research on the critical shear stresses for erosion and deposition for cohesive sediment has attracted substantial attention from both engineering and theoretical viewpoints due to their importance in sediment transport theory.Previous studies have proposed a large number of empirical and semiempirical methods to estimate the critical erosion and deposition shear stress,but comparative analyses and validation of the existing methods are still lacking,leaving questions regarding the applicability ranges of the methods.The current paper evaluates the performance and applicability range of five critical erosion shear stress methods derived from different hypotheses on sediment transport for flume experiments and natural tidal rivers using a process-based model.In addition,the effect of the critical deposition shear stress on sediment transport is investigated.The results show that the different critical erosion shear stress methods yield distinctly different prediction results,and their performance and applicability ranges are discussed by comparing their predictions with measured sediment concentrations from the Shenzhen River and measured geometric changes from the Partheniades' flume experiment.The hiding and exposure effect has been recognized as a crucial factor in the incipient motion of sediment on nonuniform beds.A sensitivity analysis of selective deposition and continuous deposition justifies the existence of the critical deposition shear stress.The current study highlights the performance and applicability ranges of the existing critical shear stress methods in sediment transport modeling for uniform and nonuniform beds,which will enrich understanding of the underlying mechanisms of erosion and deposition of cohesive sediment.     

Formation and erosion of sediment cover in an experimental bedrock‐alluvial channel

Sediment grains in a bedrock‐alluvial river will be deposited within or adjacent to a sediment patch, or as isolated grains on the bedrock surface. Previous analysis of grain geometry has demonstrated that these arrangements produce significant differences in grain entrainment shear stress. However, this analysis neglected potential interactions between the sediment patches, local hydraulics and grain entrainment. We present a series of flume experiments that measure the influence of sediment patches on grain entrainment. The flume had a planar bed with roughness that was much smaller than the diameters of the mobile grains. In each experiment sediment was added either as individual grains or as a single sediment pulse. Flow was then increased until the sediment was entrained. Analysis of the experiments demonstrates that: (1) for individual grains, coarse grains are entrained at a higher discharge than fine grains; (2) once sediment patches are present, the different in entrainment discharge between coarse and fine grains is greatly reduced; (3) the sheltering effect of patches also increases the entrainment discharge of isolated grains; (4) entire sediment patches break‐up and are eroded quickly, rather than through progressive grain‐by‐grain erosion; (5) as discharge increases there is some tendency for patches to become more elongate and flow‐aligned, and more randomly distributed across the bed. One implication of this research is that the critical shear stress in bedrock‐alluvial channels will be a function of the extent of the sediment cover. Another is that the influence of sediment patches equalizes critical shear stresses between different grain sizes and grain locations, meaning that these factors may not need to be accounted for. Further research is needed to quantify interactions between sediment patches, grain entrainment and local hydraulics on rougher bedrock surfaces, and under different types of sediment supply. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Erosion characteristics and horizontal variability for small erosion depths in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta,California, USA

Erodibility of cohesive sediment in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta (Delta) was investigated with an erosion microcosm. Erosion depths in the Delta and in the microcosm were estimated to be about one floc diameter over a range of shear stresses and times comparable to half of a typical tidal cycle. Using the conventional assumption of horizontally homogeneous bed sediment, data from 27 of 34 microcosm experiments indicate that the erosion rate coefficient increased as eroded mass increased, contrary to theory. We believe that small erosion depths, erosion rate coefficient deviation from theory, and visual observation of horizontally varying biota and texture at the sediment surface indicate that erosion cannot solely be a function of depth but must also vary horizontally. We test this hypothesis by developing a simple numerical model that includes horizontal heterogeneity, use it to develop an artificial time series of suspended-sediment concentration (SSC) in an erosion microcosm, then analyze that time series assuming horizontal homogeneity. A shear vane was used to estimate that the horizontal standard deviation of critical shear stress was about 30% of the mean value at a site in the Delta. The numerical model of the erosion microcosm included a normal distribution of initial critical shear stress, a linear increase in critical shear stress with eroded mass, an exponential decrease of erosion rate coefficient with eroded mass, and a stepped increase in applied shear stress. The maximum SSC for each step increased gradually, thus confounding identification of a single well-defined critical shear stress as encountered with the empirical data. Analysis of the artificial SSC time series with the assumption of a homogeneous bed reproduced the original profile of critical shear stress, but the erosion rate coefficient increased with eroded mass, similar to the empirical data. Thus, the numerical experiment confirms the small-depth erosion hypothesis. A linear model of critical shear stress and eroded mass is proposed to simulate small-depth erosion, assuming that the applied and critical shear stresses quickly reach equilibrium.     

Size sorting of fine-grained sediments during erosion: Results from the western Gulf of Lions

Sediment cores from the western Gulf of Lions France were subject to known bottom shear stresses with the goal of understanding size-specific sediment erodibility. On cruises in October 2004, February and April 2005, cores with an undisturbed sediment–water interface were collected along a transect extending seaward from the Tet river mouth. The cores were exposed to increasing shear stresses (0.01–0.4 Pa) onboard the vessel shortly after collection by using a Gust erosion chamber. Samples of the suspensate were collected during the erosion experiments and analyzed for disaggregated inorganic grain size (DIGS) using a Coulter Multisizer IIe. Size-specific mobility plots were generated by dividing the proportion of each grain size in suspension at each shear stress by its proportion in the sediment before erosion. If all grain sizes that make up the bottom sediment are eroded equally from the bed, then mobility equals one for all grain sizes. Values >1 indicate that the suspended sediment is enriched in the size class and values <1 indicate that the size class is enriched in the bed. Results show that in non-cohesive, sandy silts, fine grains (clays and fine silts) are eroded preferentially from the bed at low shear stresses. With increasing bottom stress progressively larger grains are eroded from the bed. In cohesive silts, preferential erosion of the finer sizes no longer occurs, with all sizes up to medium silts eroding at approximately the same rate. Effectively, a sandy silt can be winnowed of its fine grain fraction during erosion while cohesive silts cannot. This difference in the sortability of cohesive and non-cohesive sediment during erosion may control the position and maintenance of the sand–mud transition and the sequestration of surface-adsorbed contaminants.     

Understanding mass fluvial erosion along a bank profile: using PEEP technology for quantifying retreat lengths and identifying event timing

This study provides fundamental examination of mass fluvial erosion along a stream bank by identifying event timing, quantifying retreat lengths, and providing ranges of incipient shear stress for hydraulically driven erosion. Mass fluvial erosion is defined here as the detachment of thin soil layers or conglomerates from the bank face under higher hydraulic shear stresses relative to surface fluvial erosion, or the entrainment of individual grains or aggregates under lower hydraulic shear stresses. We explore the relationship between the two regimes in a representative, US Midwestern stream with semi‐cohesive bank soils, namely Clear Creek, IA. Photo‐Electronic Erosion Pins (PEEPs) provide, for the first time, in situ measurements of mass fluvial erosion retreat lengths during a season. The PEEPs were installed at identical locations where surface fluvial erosion measurements exist for identifying the transition point between the two regimes. This transition is postulated to occur when the applied shear stress surpasses a second threshold, namely the critical shear stress for mass fluvial erosion. We hypothesize that the regimes are intricately related and surface fluvial erosion can facilitate mass fluvial erosion. Selective entrainment of unbound/exposed, mostly silt‐sized particles at low shear stresses over sand‐sized sediment can armor the bank surface, limiting the removal of the underlying soil. The armoring here is enhanced by cementation from the presence of optimal levels of sand and clay. Select studies show that fluvial erosion strength can increase several‐fold when appropriate amounts of sand and clay are mixed and cement together. Hence, soil layers or conglomerates are entrained with higher flows. The critical shear stress for mass fluvial erosion was found to be an order of magnitude higher than that of surface fluvial erosion, and proceeded with higher (approximately 2–4 times) erodibility. The results were well represented by a mechanistic detachment model that captures the two regimes. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of typical grass cover combined with biocrusts on slope hydrology and soil erosion during rainstorms on the Loess Plateau of China: An experimental study

Biological soil crust (BSC), as a groundcover, is widely intergrown with grass. The effects of grass combined with BSCs on slope hydrology and soil erosion during rainfall are still unclear. In this study, simulated rainfall experiments were applied to a soil flume with four different slope cover treatments, namely, bare soil (CK), grass cover (GC), BSC, and GC + BSC, to observe the processes of runoff and sediment yield. Additionally, the soil moisture at different depths during infiltration was observed. The results showed that the runoff generated by rainfall for all treatments was in the following order: BSC > GC + BSC > CK > GC. Compared with CK, GC promoted infiltration, and BSC inhibited infiltration. The BSCs obviously inhibited infiltration at a depth of 8 cm. When the rainfall continued to infiltrate down to 16 and 24 cm, the effects of grass on promoting infiltration were stronger than those of BSCs on inhibiting infiltration. Compared with CK, the flow velocity of the BSC, GC and GC + BSC treatments was reduced by 62.8%, 32.3% and 68.3%, respectively. The BSCs and grass increased the critical shear stress by increasing the resistance. Additionally, the average sediment yield of GC and both treatments with BSCs was reduced by 80.8% and >99%, respectively, compared with CK. The soil erosion process was dominated by the soil detachment capacity in the CK, BSC and GC + BSC treatments, while the GC treatment showed a transport-limited process. This study provides a scientific basis for the reasonable spatial allocation of vegetation in arid and semiarid areas and the correction of vegetation cover factors in soil erosion prediction models.     

Parameterization of near-bed processes under collinear wave and current flows from a two-phase sheet flow model

Sediment transport models require appropriate representation of near-bed processes. We aim here to explore the parameterizations of bed shear stress, bed load transport rate and near-bed sediment erosion rate under the sheet flow regime. To that end, we employ a one-dimensional two-phase sheet flow model which is able to resolve the intrawave boundary layer and sediment dynamics at a length scale on the order of the sediment grain. We have conducted 79 numerical simulations to cover a range of collinear wave and current conditions and sediment diameters in the range 210–460 μm$\mathrm{\mu }\mathrm{m}$. The numerical results confirm that the intrawave bed shear stress leads the free stream velocity, and we assess an explicit expression relating the phase lead to the maximum velocity, wave period and bed roughness. The numerical sheet flow model is also used to provide estimates for the bed load transport rate and to inspect the near-bed sediment erosion. A common bed load transport rate formulation and two typical reference concentration approaches are assessed. A dependence of the bed load transport rate on the sediment grain diameter is observed and parameterized. Finally, the intrawave near-bed vertical sediment flux is further investigated and related to the time derivative of the bed shear stress.     

Relationship between bed shear stress and suspended sediment concentration:annular flume experiments

In this study,annular flume experiments were carried out,using the sediment samples collected from the lower part of the inter-tidal zone at Xiaoyangkou,Jiangsu coast,China.The Ariathurai-Partheniades equation was used to determine the bed shear stress,by evaluating variations in the suspended sediment concentration within the water column.The derived relation between the bed shear stress and suspended sediment concentration shows that,at various stages of seabed erosion, suspended sediment concentration increases rapidly when the flow velocity is increased,but the pattern of change in the bed shear stress does not follow suit.At low concentrations,bed shear stress initially increases markedly with increasing flow velocity.However,when the concentration reaches an apparently critical level around 0.55 kg m"3,the rate of change in the bed shear stress abruptly slows down,or becomes almost constant,in response to further increases in the flow velocity.Results of experiments indicate that,from a critical level onward,suspended sediment concentration has a strong influence on the bed shear stress.     

Surficial sediment erodibility from time-series measurements of suspended sediment concentrations: development and validation

Numerical models of fine sediment transport depend on different approaches to parameterize the erosion properties of surficial sediment strata. These properties, namely the critical shear stress for erosion and the erosion rate coefficient, are crucial for reproducing the short-term and long-term sediment dynamics of the system. Methods to parameterize these properties involve either specialized laboratory measurements on sediment samples or optimization by model calibration. Based on observations of regular patterns in the variation of suspended sediment concentrations (SSC) over the tidal cycle in a small, narrow estuary, an alternate approach, referred to as the entrainment flux method, for quantifying the erosion properties of surficial bed strata is formulated and applied. The results of this method are shown to be analogous to the erosion data used to formulate the standard linear erosion formulation developed by various authors. The erosion properties inferred from the entrainment flux method are also compared to direct measurements of erodibility on sediment samples from the same site using the Gust microcosm apparatus. The favorable comparison of the two approaches suggests that the entrainment flux method can be used to infer and quantify the erodibility of surficial sediment strata in similar small and narrow estuaries. This method has certain advantages, chiefly its ease of implementation and the fact that it uses SSC time series which would typically be expected to be available for the study of or for model application at a given site. Guidelines for selecting the appropriate dataset for the application of the method are also presented.     

Flow competence: A criticism of a classic concept

The largest grains found in samples of transported sediment are commonly used to estimate flow competence. With samples from a range of flows, a relationship between the flow and the largest mobile grain can be derived and used to estimate the critical shear stress for incipient motion of the different grain sizes in the bed sediment or, inversely, to estimate the magnitude of the flow from the largest grain found in a transport sample. Because these estimates are based on an extreme value of the transport grain-size distribution, however, they are subject to large errors and are sensitive to the effect of sample size, which tends to vary widely in sediment transport samples from natural flows. Furthermore, estimates of the critical shear stress based on the largest sampled moving grain cannot be scaled in a manner that permits reasonable comparison between fractions. The degree to which sample size and scaling problems make largest-grain estimates of fractional critical shear stress deviate from a true relationship cannot be predicted exactly, although the direction of such a deviation can be demonstrated. The large errors and unknown bias suggest that the largest sampled mobile grain is not a reliable predictor of either critical shear stress or flow magnitude. It is possible to define a single flow competence for the entire mixture, based on a central value of the transport grain-size distribution. Such a measure is relatively stable, does not require between-fraction scaling, and appears to be well supported by observation.     

Influence of hydro-sedimentary factors on mollusc death assemblages in a temperate mixed tide-and-wave dominated coastal environment: Implications for the fossil record

Mollusc death assemblages were recovered in 98 subtidal sampling stations on the seafloor of the shallow Pertuis Charentais Sea (Atlantic coast of France). Taxonomic composition and spatial distribution of death assemblages were investigated, as well as their response to sediment grain size (field data), bottom shear stress (coupled tide and wave hydrodynamic modelling), and sediment budget (bathymetric difference map). Results showed that molluscs are likely to be reliable paleoenvironmental indicators since death assemblages were able to acquire ecological changes within years (decadal-scale taphonomic inertia), and live–dead agreement inferred from existing data on living benthic communities was high, except close to river mouths and intertidal mudflats that provide terrestrial and intertidal species to subtidal death assemblages, respectively. Taxonomic composition of these within-habitat death assemblages strongly depended on sediment grain size and bottom shear stress, similarly to living subtidal communities. Post-mortem dispersal of shells, owing to relatively low bottom shear stress in the area, was only of a few 10s to 100s of meters, which shows that death assemblages preserved environmental gradients even at a fine spatial scale. Sediment budget had also a significant influence on death assemblages. Thick-shelled epifaunal species were correlated with erosion areas on one side, and thin-shelled infaunal species with deposition on the other, showing that mollusc fossil assemblages could be used as indicators of paleo-sedimentation rate. This new proxy was successfully tested on a previously published Holocene mollusc fossil record from the same area. It was possible to refine the paleoenvironmental interpretation already proposed, in accordance with existing stratigraphic and sedimentological data.     

Modeling cave cross-section evolution including sediment transport and paragenesis

Deposits within caves are often used to interpret past landscape evolution and climate conditions. However, cave passage shapes also preserve information about past conditions. Despite the usefulness of passage shape, no previous models simulate cave cross-section evolution in a realistic manner. Here we develop a model for evolving cave passage cross-sections using a shear stress estimation algorithm and a shear stress erosion rule. Our model qualitatively duplicates observed cave passage shapes so long as erosion rates vary with shear stress, as in the case of transport limited dissolution or mechanical erosion. This result provides further evidence that erosion rates within caves are not typically limited by surface reaction rates, even though current speleogenesis models predict surface-rate limitation under most turbulent flow conditions. By adding sediment transport and alluviation to the model we successfully simulate paragenetic channels. Simulations duplicate the hypothesized dynamics of paragenesis, whereby: 1) the cross-section of a phreatic passage grows until shear stress is sufficiently reduced that alluviation occurs, 2) the floor of the passage becomes armored and erosion continues on the ceiling and walls, 3) negative feedback produces an equilibrium cross-sectional area such that shear stress is sufficient to transport incoming sediment. We derive an approximate scaling relationship that indicates that equilibrium paragenetic channel width scales with the square root of discharge, and weakly with the inverse of sediment supply. Simulations confirm this relationship and show that erosion mechanism, sediment size, and roughness are secondary controls. The inverse scaling of width with sediment supply in paragenetic channels contrasts with surface bedrock channels, which respond to larger sediment supplies by widening. Our model provides a first step in simulating cave cross-section evolution and points to the need for a better understanding of the dominant erosion mechanisms in soluble bedrock channels. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sedimentary records of natural and artificial Huanghe (Yellow River) channel shifts during the Holocene in the southern Bohai Sea

Two gravity cores collected off the modern Huanghe (Yellow River) delta in the southern Bohai Sea were analyzed for grain size, the total organic carbon (TOC)/total nitrogen (TN) ratio, color diffraction, magnetic susceptibility, ¹⁴C dating and ¹³⁷Cs and ²¹⁰Pb isotope contents to clarify changes in the sedimentary environment during the Holocene. In particular, the effect of natural and artificial river-course shifts of the Huanghe on the Bohai Sea sediment was investigated. A peat layer, scouring surface and sharp changes in the grain size, TOC/TN ratio, sediment color (L^?, a^?) and magnetic susceptibility were identified and are likely to be due to the early-Holocene sea-level rise resulting in environmental changes from coastal to shelf environments in the Bohai Sea. After the sea level reached its maximum at 6-7 ka BP, the lateral shifts in the river course of the Huanghe formed 10 superlobes, and superlobe 7 (11-1048 AD) and superlobe 10 (1855-present) of the Huanghe delta affected the core sites. The northern site of BH-239 has been more affected by the Huanghe since the middle Holocene. Notably, in the superlobe 10 period, the reshaping of the northern Huanghe delta due to an artificial river-course shift from northward to eastward in 1976 (e.g., a∼10 km shoreline retreat due to coastal erosion) was recorded in the core sediments, particularly in terms of the TOC/TN ratio, sediment color (L^? and a^?) and magnetic susceptibility, owing to the huge sediment supply from coastal erosion of the former river mouth area.     

Spatial variations in surface sediment structure in riffle–pool sequences: a preliminary test of the Differential Sediment Entrainment Hypothesis (DSEH)

Riffle–pool sequences are maintained through the preferential entrainment of sediment grains from pools rather than riffles. This preferential entrainment has been attributed to a reversal in the magnitude of velocity and shear stress under high flows; however the Differential Sediment Entrainment Hypothesis (DSEH) postulates that differential entrainment can instead result from spatial sedimentological contrasts. Here we use a novel suite of in situ grain‐scale field measurements from a riffle–pool sequence to parameterize a physically‐based model of grain entrainment. Field measurements include pivoting angles, lift forces and high resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) acquired using terrestrial laser scanning, from which particle exposure, protrusion and surface roughness were derived. The entrainment model results show that grains in pools have a lower critical entrainment shear stress than grains in either pool exits or riffles. This is because pool grains have looser packing, hence greater exposure and lower pivoting angles. Conversely, riffle and pool exit grains have denser packing, lower exposure and higher pivoting angles. A cohesive matrix further stabilizes pool exit grains. The resulting predictions of critical entrainment shear stress for grains in different subunits are compared with spatial patterns of bed shear stress derived from a two‐dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of the reach. The CFD model predicts that, under bankfull conditions, pools experience lower shear stresses than riffles and pool exits. However, the difference in sediment entrainment shear stress is sufficiently large that sediment in pools is still more likely to be entrained than sediment in pool exits or riffles, resulting in differential entrainment under bankfull flows. Significantly, this differential entrainment does not require a reversal in flow velocities or shear stress, suggesting that sedimentological contrasts alone may be sufficient for the maintenance of riffle–pool sequences. This finding has implications for the prediction of sediment transport and the morphological evolution of gravel‐bed rivers. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Intertidal mudflat properties, currents and sediment erosion in the partially mixed Tamar Estuary, UK

Results are presented from a 1-year campaign to measure the seasonal variability of some key physical and biological properties of intertidal mudflats over a section of the central Tamar Estuary and to relate these to the physical environment. Seasonal variations in physical mudflat properties, such as grain size, density and moisture content were relatively small. With the exception of the particulate organic carbon content in the upper 0.002 m of surface sediment, biological variations were large. Redox potential exhibited considerable seasonal variation and showed that the sediments were less reduced in winter and more reduced in summer. Chlorophyll a and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) within the surface 0.002 m of sediment (due to the presence of benthic diatoms) were strongly correlated and exhibited a pronounced seasonal pattern, with smallest values during winter and greatest values during late summer and early autumn. EPS had a dominating influence on sediment erosion, as determined from annular flume measurements. Velocity measurements and velocity modelling indicated that during the flood, and for much of the time during benthic diatom bloom conditions of high chlorophyll a and EPS sediment contents, the stresses exerted by tidal currents were too small to cause significant suspension of sediments over much of the middle and upper mudflats. Suspended fine sediment in the turbidity maximum zone was transported down-estuary and deposited in the main channel at low-water (LW) slack. Some of this sediment, in the form of relatively large aggregates, was subsequently transported onto the mudflats during the flooding tide, where slack currents and fast settling velocities may have enhanced sediment deposition there.Responsible Editor: Hans Burchard