The geochemistry, mineralogy and maturity of gossans derived from volcanogenic Zn–Pb–Cu deposits of the eastern Lachlan Fold Belt, NSW, Australia

The Eastern Highlands of Australia have probably been in existence since the Late Cretaceous or earlier and so there has been ample time for mature gossan profiles to form over outcropping volcanogenic Zn–Pb–Cu mineralisation in the eastern Lachlan Fold Belt. The mature gossan profiles are characterised by the upward progression from supergene sulfides to secondary sulfates, carbonates and phosphates into a Fe-oxide dominated surficial capping which may contain boxwork textures after the original sulfides (as at the Woodlawn massive sulfide deposit). However, the region has locally been subjected to severe erosion and the weathering profile over many deposits is incomplete (immature) with carbonate and phosphate minerals, especially malachite, being found in surficial material. These immature gossans contain more Cu, Pb and Zn but lower As, Sn (and probably Au) than the mature gossans. Although Pb is probably the best single pathfinder for Zn–Pb–Cu VHMS deposits of the eastern Lachlan Fold Belt, Ag, As, Au, Bi, Mo, Sb and Sn are also useful, with most of these elements able to be concentrated in substantial amounts in Fe oxides and alunite–jarosite minerals.     

Supergene features and evolution of gossans capping massive sulphide deposits in the Iberian Pyrite Belt

Twelve massive sulphide deposits from the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB) show well-preserved iron caps, some of which were mined during the last century to recover precious metals (e.g., Tharsis, Rio Tinto, San Miguel). Field observations and correlation assays between the distinct mineral sequences at different deposits suggest that all the gossans were developed under similar conditions and have undergone the same geological events. All the gossans have a mushroom-like morphology in sharp contact with the underlying massive sulphide orebodies. In most cases these are located over an apparent supergene enrichment zone rich in secondary sulphides. Some gossans extend into tongues of alluvial heterolithic breccias consisting of eroded transported gossans displaced as far as several hundred meters away from their sources. The distribution of major minerals throughout the gossan profiles (goethite, hematite, quartz and jarosite) and the statistical analysis of the geochemical data distinguish three separate zones, with gradual contacts roughly parallel to the current topography: (1) the lower zone dominated by goethite and subordinate jarosite, with significant enrichment in S, As, P, Pb, Sn, Sb, Ag and Au; (2) the middle or principal zone dominated by goethite and lacking jarosite, which is depleted in S, and As, as well as heavy and precious metals; and (3) the upper zone near the surface, mainly composed of hematite and quartz with only weak anomalies in P, Pb and Sn. The origin and variations occurred in the profiles are explained by a three-stage process. This involves an initial acidic stage of gossan development centred on the oxidation of sulphides that lead to the formation of the first Fe-rich oxyhydroxides and sulphates (mainly goethite and jarosite, respectively). Over time, a progressive stage of maturity is reached progressively downwards through the gossan profile due to the intensification of the oxidation and leaching processes. The ongoing gossan formation produced alteration and reprecipitation of pre-existing oxyhydroxides, the loss of the majority of the previously sorbed heavy metals, and a major dilution of trace elements especially in the zones near the surface. The main results of this stage of formation are the production of heavy metal-depleted oxyhydroxides, most commonly goethite and hematite, and the disappearance of jarosite. Subsequently, local uplift of the gossanous rocks by neotectonic movements facilitated the rejuvenation of the oxidation of the ores. This final stage complicated the previously developed zonation with the formation of jarosite in mature areas. Possible major breaks in this gossan development ocurred in Messinian times (7–8 Ma) and at the beginning of the Early Quaternary (1–2 Ma?).     

Alteration Geochemistry of Volcanic Rocks around Sarcheshmeh Porphyry Copper Deposit,Rafsanjan, Kerman,Iran: Implications for Regional Exploration

To discriminate the mineral potentiality of the trachybasalt around the Miocene Sarcheshmeh porphyry copper deposit, petrogeochemical characteristics of more than 45 samples of the volcanic rocks were studied. Sarcheshmeh is one of the world's largest Miocene porphyry copper deposits in a continental arc setting and contains about 1200 million tonnes of ores with an average grade of 1.2 percent copper, 0.03 percent molybdenum, 3.9 g/t Ag and 0.11 g/t Au. The biotized and sericitized trachybasalts around the Sarcheshmeh deposit are associated with chalcopyrite, pyrite and molybdenite and and are enriched in Cu (>3108 ppm), K₂O (>4.2%), Rb (>155 ppm) and MgO (>2.9%), but depleted in yttrium (<11 ppm), MnO (<0.06%), CaO (<0.6%), Na₂O (<0.33%), Sr (<107 ppm), and Ba (<181 ppm). The propylitized trachybasalts are enriched in CaO (>9.1%), Na₂O (>3.2%), MnO (>0.24%), Y (>18.2 ppm), and Ba (>323 ppm). The results demonstrate that the diagrams of loss on ignition ? Cu, Cu ? Y, K₂O/K₂O + Na₂O + CaO ? Cu and Y ? MnO may be used as an exploration guide for undiscovered porphyry copper mineralization in the Central Iranian volcano—plutonic copper belt.     

Pleistocene recycling of copper at a porphyry system,Atacama Desert,Chile: Cu isotope evidence

We present Cu isotope data of hypogene and supergene minerals from the Late Paleocene Spence Cu-Mo porphyry in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile. Chalcopyrite displays a restricted range of δ⁶⁵Cu values within the values reported for primary porphyry Cu sulfides (+ 0.28‰ to + 0.34‰, n = 6). Supergene chalcocite samples show heavier and remarkably homogeneous δ⁶⁵Cu values, between + 3.91‰ and + 3.95‰ (n = 6), consistent with previous models of Cu leaching and enrichment in porphyry systems. Secondary Cu minerals from the oxide zone show a wider range of composition, varying from + 1.28‰ and + 1.37‰ for chrysocolla (n = 6) to very light Cu isotope signatures reported for atacamite between -5.72‰ to -6.77‰ (n = 17). These data suggest redox cycling of Cu during supergene enrichment of the Spence Cu deposit, characterized by a first stage of supergene chalcocite formation from acidic, isotopically-heavy leach fluids of meteoric origin down-flowing in a semi-arid climate (44 to ~ 15-9 Ma). Reworking of the initial supergene copper assemblage, during the Pleistocene, by rising neutral and chlorine-rich deep formation waters under well-established hyper-arid climate conditions lead to the formation of atacamite with extremely fractionated Cu compositions. Essentially coeval chrysocolla formed by dissolution of atacamite during short episodes of wetter climatic conditions occurring in the latest Pleistocene.     

Copper isotopes as monitors of redox processes in hydrothermal mineralization

The stable copper isotope composition of 79 samples of primary and secondary copper minerals from hydrothermal veins in the Schwarzwald mining district, South Germany, shows a wide variation in δ⁶⁵Cu ranging from −2.92 to 2.41‰. We investigated primary chalcopyrite, various kinds of fahlores and emplectite, as well as supergene native copper, malachite, azurite, cuprite, tenorite, olivenite, pseudomalachite and chrysocolla. Fresh primary Cu(I) ores have at most localities copper isotope ratios (δ⁶⁵Cu values) of 0 ± 0.5‰ despite the fact that the samples come from mineralogically different types of deposits covering an area of about 100 by 50 km and that they formed during three different mineralization events spanning the last 300 Ma. Relics of the primary ores in oxidized samples (i.e., chalcopyrite relics in an iron oxide matrix with an outer malachite coating) display low isotope ratios down to −2.92‰. Secondary Cu(I) minerals such as cuprite have high δ⁶⁵Cu values between 0.4 and 1.65‰, whereas secondary Cu(II) minerals such as malachite show a range of values between −1.55 and 2.41‰, but typically have values above +0.5‰. Within single samples, supergene oxidation of fresh chalcopyrite with a δ value of 0‰ causes significant fractionation on the scale of a centimetre between malachite (up to 1.49‰) and relict chalcopyrite (down to −2.92‰). The results show that—with only two notable exceptions—high-temperature hydrothermal processes did not lead to significant and correlatable variations in copper isotope ratios within a large mining district mineralized over a long period of time. Conversely, low-temperature redox processes seriously affect the copper isotope compositions of hydrothermal copper ores. While details of the redox processes are not yet understood, we interpret the range in compositions found in both primary Cu(I) and secondary Cu(II) minerals as a result of two competing controls on the isotope fractionation process: within-fluid control, i.e., the fractionation during the redox process among dissolved species, and fluid-solid control, i.e., fractionation during precipitation involving reactions between dissolved Cu species and minerals. Additionally, Rayleigh fractionation in a closed system may be responsible for some of the spread in isotope compositions. Our study indicates that copper isotope variations may be used to decipher details of natural redox processes and therefore may have some bearing on exploration, evaluation and exploitation of copper deposits. On the other hand, copper isotope analyses of single archeological artefacts or geological or biological objects cannot be easily used as reliable fingerprint for the source of copper, because the variation caused by redox processes within a single deposit is usually much larger than the inter-deposit variation.     

一种亟待重新认识的铜矿床——滇中土状铜矿

滇中土铜矿长期被认为是一种不可利用的铜矿床,新的湿法冶金技术应用使之成为了效益型铜资源。滇中土状铜矿产于中元古界昆阳群落雪组的土状风化壳内,分为面型和线型两种矿床类型。主要铜矿物为孔雀石、硅孔雀石、微粒状赤铜矿和黑铜矿、少量残余含铜硫化物。其矿石平均品位同于原生硫化矿。与原生矿石相比,土状氧化铜矿石ＳｉＯ２、Ａｌ２Ｏ３、Ｆｗ２Ｏ３、Ｍｎｏ明显富集,ＣａＯ与ＭｇＯ大量淋失,由碱性矿石变成了可酸浸的非     

The use of the weights-of-evidence modeling technique to predictive porphyry Cu potential mapping in Ahar–Arasbaran zone,Iran

The weights-of-evidence is a data-driven method that provides a simple approach to integration of diverse geo-data set information. In this study, we will use weights-of-evidence to build a model for predicting tracts in the Ahar–Arasbaran zone of Urumieh-Dokhtar orogenic belt (northwestern Iran) that are favorable for porphyry copper deposits. Weights of evidence are a data-driven method requiring known deposits and occurrences that are used as training points in the evaluated area. This zone hosts two major porphyry Cu deposits (The Sarcheshmeh deposit contains 450 million tonnes of sulfide ore with an average grade of 1.13 % Cu and 0.03 % Mo and Sungun deposit, which has 500 million tonnes of sulfide reserves grading 0.76 % Cu and 0.01 % Mo), and a number of subeconomic porphyry copper deposits are all associated with Mid- to Late Miocene diorite/granodiorite to quartz-monzonite stocks. Five evidential layers including geology, alteration, geochemistry, geophysics, and faulting are chosen for potential mapping. Weight factors were determined based on the applied method to generate last mineral prospectivity map. The studied area reduces to less than 11.78 %, while large zones are excluded for further studies. This result represents a significant area reduction and may help to better focus on mineral exploration targeting porphyry copper deposits in the Ahar–Arasbaran zone.     

Biogeochemistry of Pb–Zn gossans,northwest Queensland,Australia: Implications for mineral exploration and mine site rehabilitation

The concentration and distribution of metals were studied in metallophytes, growing on and in the vicinity of Pb–Zn gossans, NW Queensland. The study investigated the accumulation of metals in plant species and assessed their potential use as indicators in geobotanical and biogeochemical prospecting and as metal excluders in mine site rehabilitation. Plant species colonising the gossans tolerate high concentrations of metals. Total mean metal concentrations of soils ranged from minima of 14 ppm Cu, 28 ppm Pb and 34 ppm Zn in background areas to maxima of 660 ppm Cu, 12000 ppm Pb and 2100 ppm Zn over mineralised soils. Over the gossans, the grass species Eriachne mucronata forma, Enneapogon lindleyanus and Paraneurachne muelleri replace the characteristic grass Triodia molesta where the soils have high Pb and Zn concentrations. Of the 16 plant species identified, 3 of them, Hybanthus aurantiacus, Clerodendrum tomentosum and Bulbostylis barbata, were confined to the gossan sites. B. barbata appears to be of particular use in geobotanical prospecting as it indicates base metal mineralisation in the region.     

The Sarcheshmeh porphyry copper deposit,Kerman, Iran: A mineralogical analysis of the igneous rocks and alteration zones including halogen element systematics related to Cu mineralization processes

The giant Sarcheshmeh porphyry Copper deposit is located 65 km southwest of Kerman City, southeastern Iran. Numerous Miocene porphyry stocks and dykes intruded thick sequences of Upper Cretaceous sedimentary and Eocene volcanic rocks. Hypogene and supergene porphyry Cu mineralization occurs within the granodioritic porphyry and host rock sequence, which was extensively altered to a dominantly potassic, phyllic, and argillic assemblage with interstitial to distal propylitic types.Biotite-bearing assemblages occur as both primary phenocrysts and secondary replacements showing variable size, colour, and shape. Fluorine contents (0.22 to 1.33 wt.%) and X_Mg (0.54 to 0.71) in biotites from the potassic and phyllic zones are higher than those of non-mineralized granitoids (F = 0.09 to 0.56 wt.%, X_Mg = 0.43 to 0.54), whereas their Cl contents (Cl = 0.05 to 0.24 wt.%) are lower than those of the non-mineralized granitoids (Cl = .0.11 to 0.45). The biotites from the phyllic zone have higher log (fH₂O/fHF) and log (fH₂O/fHCl) values than those of the potassic zone, as well as the granitoid and andesitic dykes. The log (fHF/fHCl) values determined for the granitoid, potassic and phyllic zones are similar, though more negative than those of the andesitic dykes. The log (fHF/fHCl) values have a similar range for biotite from the granitoid, and potassic and phyllic zones. The halogen fugacity ratios established for fluids associated with the Sarcheshmeh deposit from their F and Cl contents in biotite show that the granitoid, potassic zone and phyllic zone are increasingly affected by meteoric waters. The fluids that circulated in the phyllic zone are predominantly of meteoric origin, possibly overprinting original phyllic zone halogen contents.The Cl intercept values of biotite in the granitoid, and phyllic and potassic are similar to other ore-forming systems and tend to be more Cl-rich than Cl-intercept values of biotites in common igneous rocks. Calculated F/Cl intercept values for biotite in the granitoid and potassic zone are also consistent with many other porphyry copper forming systems.     

Metavolcanic host rocks,mineralization, and gossans of the Shaib al Tair and Rabathan volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits of the Wadi Bidah Mineral District,Saudi Arabia

The Wadi Bidah Mineral District of Saudi Arabia contains more than 16 small outcropping stratabound volcanogenic Cu–Zn–(Pb) ± Au-bearing massive sulphide deposits and associated zones of hydrothermal alteration. Here, we use major and trace element analyses of massive sulphides, gossans, and hydrothermally altered and least altered metamorphosed host rock (schist) from two of the deposits (Shaib al Tair and Rabathan) to interpret the geochemical and petrological evolution of the host rocks and gossanization of the mineralization. Tectonic interpretations utilize high-field-strength elements, including the rare earth elements (REE), because they are relatively immobile during hydrothermal alteration, low-grade metamorphism, and supergene weathering and therefore are useful in constraining the source, composition, and physicochemical parameters of the primary igneous rocks, the mineralizing hydrothermal fluid and subsequent supergene weathering processes. Positive Eu anomalies in some of the massive sulphide samples are consistent with a high temperature (>250°C) hydrothermal origin, consistent with the Cu contents (up to 2 wt.%) of the massive sulphides. The REE profiles of the gossans are topologically similar to nearby hydrothermally altered felsic schists (light REE (LREE)-enriched to concave-up REE profiles, with or without positive Eu anomalies) suggesting that the REE experienced little fractionation during metamorphism or supergene weathering. Hydrothermally altered rocks (now schists) close to the massive sulphide deposits have high base metals and Ba contents and have concave-up REE patterns, in contrast to the least altered host rocks, consistent with greater mobility of the middle REE compared to the light and heavy REE during hydrothermal alteration. The gossans are interpreted to represent relict massive sulphides that have undergone supergene weathering; ‘chert’ beds within these massive sulphide deposits may be leached wall-rock gossans that experienced silicification and Pb–Ba–Fe enrichment from acidic groundwaters generated during gossan formation.     

Alteration, zoning model, and mineralogical structure considering lithogeochemical investigation in Northern Dalli Cu–Au porphyry

Dalli Cu–Au porphyry deposit was occurred in the igneous diorite, quartz diorite porphyry (QDP), and volcanic rocks such as porphyritic amphibole andesite, andesite (AND), dacite, and pyroclastics during the late Miocene to Pliocene. Regolith investigations and Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer images were used to identify the anomalous areas. According to lithogeochemical survey (from boreholes and trenches) in Northern Dalli Cu–Au porphyry, the potassic, chlorite, sericite, propylitic, and argillic alterations have been found and mineralization was basically associated with potassic and quartz–sericite alterations. The alteration is dominantly moderate quartz chlorite?±?sericite magnetite with 1–10 mm wide quartz?±?magnetite veinlets. The elevated copper–gold values are correlated with density of stockworking and mineralization. The intensity of the mineralization is high in the contact of QDP and AND with increases in pyrite and chalcopyrite values. Malachite, native Cu, and bornite were used to identify supergene, transition, and hypogene zone. In addition, molybdenum increased near to the center of granodiorite intrusion. And besides, from depth to surface in DDH03 and wall rock to mineralization zones, a sequence of Mo→Cu (Au)→Au (Cu) was recorded and the mineralization temperature cooled down (from high to low). The alteration is characterized by specific pattern and structure in Dalli Cu–Au porphyry deposit. The alteration model was followed from the modified Lowell and Gilbert model. The porphyry is stockworked by quartz veins and by quartz magnetite veins. Vein distribution and ore mineralogy vary between the different alteration zones. Due to the formation of an iron cap in the supergene, especially in the southern hills, supergene grade was higher than hypogene zone. Also, hematite, as a dominant Fe oxide in DDH03 borehole with minor limonite, jarosite, and goethite created thickness about 150–270 m in supergene zone; finally, this finding show a possibility of an extensive mineralization.     

Mobility and fractionation of rare earth elements during supergene weathering and gossan formation and chemical modification of massive sulfide gossan

Primary massive sulfide gossans (MSG) in the Bathurst Mining Camp (BMC), New Brunswick, Canada, are characterized by relative enrichment of Au, Sb, and As, formation of jarosite group minerals (jarosite, plumbojarosite, and argentojarosite) and little or no fractionation in the rare earth elements (REE), including preservation of large positive Eu anomalies (average [Eu/Eu*]_NASC = 4.14 in MSG; 6.61 in massive sulfide mineralization; 0.60 in host rocks). The chemical and mineralogical characteristics of MSG (e.g., Halfmile Lake deposit) imply low pH (<3) and relatively oxidizing conditions during gossan formation; oxidation of a volcanogenic massive sulfide body (comprising pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite) with a falling water table. The lack of light REE or heavy REE fractionation and preservation of positive Eu anomalies characteristic of the original (465 Ma) hydrothermal fluid is consistent with relatively large water-rock ratios during massive sulfide mineralization oxidation, and removal of the REE predominantly as sulfate complexes (LnSO₄⁺, Ln(SO₄)₂⁻). Low pH groundwaters recovered from past producing mines in the BMC display REE patterns reflecting those inferred to have occurred during gossan formation. Gossan at the Restigouche deposit, in contrast to the Halfmile Lake deposit, displays mineralogical and chemical evidence for having been chemically reworked since primary gossan formation. Evidence for chemical reworking includes loss of primary massive sulfide mineralization textures, replacement of plumbojarosite with anglesite, almost complete removal of jarosite minerals, loss of Au, Sb, and As and apparent preferential removal of Eu, resulting in loss of positive Eu anomalies for most samples (average [Eu/Eu*]_NASC = 1.21 in the gossan, with many displaying strong negative anomalies; 3.65 in massive sulfide mineralization; 0.54 in host rocks). Based on geochemical modeling, conditions inferred for the chemical reworking of the Restigouche deposit include near neutral conditions and either relatively oxidizing conditions with Eu²⁺ hosted in a preferentially weathered mineral host (possibly through substitution for Pb in plumbojarosite and beudantite) or cycling between reduced and oxidized conditions during gossan reworking.     

云南维西大宝山铜矿地质特征及矿石中Ag与Cu关系探讨

云南维西大宝山铜矿区位于青藏高原东南缘,哀牢山-金沙江构造带西北部雪龙山成矿带中,是典型的中低温热液矿床。矿区主要包括望香台及滑石板矿段,根据矿床、矿体特征及详尽的镜下观察,将矿石类型划分为氧化矿、硫化矿及混合矿。氧化矿主要包括孔雀石及蓝铜矿,多分布在望香台矿段中浅部,是辉铜矿次生氧化富集作用的结果,出露形式多以混合矿产出;硫化矿主要包括辉铜矿及黄铜矿,且独立组成不同的矿物组合类型,分别为望香台矿段、滑石板矿段的主要矿石矿物。不同的矿石组合类型所含矿物种类、矿石结构构造不尽相同。通过对不同样品进行化学分析测试,发现在硫化矿辉铜矿等矿物组合中,Cu品位越高,相应Ag品位越高,存在一定的线性关系;而在硫化矿黄铜矿矿体中,Ag含量与Cu品位无相应关系;混合矿(辉铜矿、孔雀石及蓝铜矿)中此类关系更加显著。此外,辉铜矿、孔雀石、蓝铜矿单矿物矿石及混合矿矿石中含有硫砷铜银矿、深红银矿、雌黄及雄黄等伴生矿物,而黄铜矿中矿物种类较为单一。综合矿区地质特征、矿体分布特征、矿物组合类型认为,矿区中辉铜矿、孔雀石、蓝铜矿等组合类型为含银矿物的主要载体。     

Epigenetic hydrothermal origin of native copper and supergene enrichment in the Vista Alegre district,Paraná basaltic province,southernmost Brazil

Native copper is widespread in the Lower Cretaceous Paraná basaltic province, southern Brazil, both as films in fractures and as massive balls in amygdules. The focus of this investigation is on the large concentration of occurrences (n = 85) that forms the Vista Alegre district in the border region of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina states. The high average of 220 ppm Cu content of the basalts resulted in ore of native copper, Cu oxides, abundant chrysocolla in the top of mineralizations, and minor malachite and azurite. Native copper is associated with dioctahedral and trioctahedral smectites, zeolites (heulandite and clinoptilonite), quartz, and calcite, typical of a low-T (100–150°C) hydrothermal alteration assembly. The PGE distribution shows enrichment in Pd in relation to Pt both in basalts and in native copper, supporting the hypothesis of hydrothermal origin of the mineralization. No evidence was found of direct precipitation of copper from the lava; based on field and petrographic evidence, integrated with BSE images, EPMA analyses, EGP contents of native copper, and bulk rock analyses, this is an epigenetic hydrothermal copper mineralization, followed by supergene enrichment.     

Analysis of a weathered profile on sulfide mineralization at Mugga Mugga, Western Australia

The mineralogy and geochemistry of the massive pyrite-pyrrhotite mineralization, which contains minor magnetite, sphalerite and galena, the weathered profile and surface gossan at Mugga Mugga in Western Australia have been examined. Reactions between amphibolite wall rocks and acid waters from the oxidation of the iron sulfides have resulted in distinct mineralogical zonation of the weathered profile which is further modified near the surface by lateritization. At the base of the weathered zone an opaline chert (Opal-CT) has been precipitated from fluctuations of the water table. A gossanous zone from 25.14–68.80 m with boxworks after massive pyrite is modified by abundant kaolinite, dickite and an alunite-type mineral derived from amphibolite wall rocks, while above 25.14 m both plinthite and mottled clay zones of a laterite profile are evident. Some characteristics of a mature gossan profile – sulfate-phosphate-arsenate near the base, a carbonate zone higher in the profile, and an oxide zone near the surface – overprint the gross zonation.At the interface between sulfide and weathered rock Mg, Ca, K, S, Zn, Cd, Hg, Ba are depleted, As, Sb, Mo, Cr and V contents increase and in the weathered zone, SiO₂, TiO₂, P₂O₅, SO₃, Pb, Zn, Hg, Sb, Co, Ni, W, Ba, Sr and Zr decrease up the profile whilst Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃, CO₂, Cu and As increase. Of the elements associated with the massive pyrite (Pb, Zn, Cu, Ag, As, Cd, Hg, Sb, Co, Ni) anomalous concentrations of Pb, Cu, Ag, As and Sb occur in the surface gossan despite the possibility of complete leaching by highly acidic solutions. These anomalies are similar to those found in gossans over pyrite mineralization elsewhere in the Yilgarn Block.     

Gold Enrichment in the Supergene Zone of a Southern Urals Pyrite Deposit,Russia

The Gay deposit, situated in the Orenburg region, is identified with one of Russia's principal occurrences of pyrite (pyrite deposits are an important source of Russia's gold). It belongs to the west subzone of the Magnitogorsk synclinorium and occurs in Devonian rhyolite-basaltic volcanic rocks. The deposit comprises five large pyrite-chalcopyrite, pyrite-chalcopyrite- sphalerite, and pyrite orebodies. The supergene zone extends to 120-240 m below surface and consists of the following three subhorizontal zones (from bottom to top): the secondary sulfide enrichment, the leaching, and the oxidation zone (where ores are enriched in gold).

There are two levels of secondary gold enrichment in the weathering profile. The lower level, located in the leaching zone, corresponds with the level of water table fluctuations. The rich, flat-lying horizon (1.5-10.0 m) is composed of bedded, friable native sulfur-quartz ores; it contains 19.0-52.2 ppm Au and up to 389 ppm Ag. Native gold and silver halides (chlorargyrite, iodargyrite, and embolite) are the principal precious-metal minerals. Electrum, native silver, acanthite, and uytenbogaardtite constitute the minor ones. The upper level of the enrichment is located in the lower part of gossan. This bonanza is composed of hematite-quartz ochres. Gold concentration is 13.5 to 21.2 ppm. Native gold of high fineness and silver halides apparently are associated here with poorly crystallized iron oxides. The formation of supergene gold enrichments may result partly from residual concentration and partly from mobilization and reprecipitation of the precious metal. Rich horizons form by repeated gold redeposition in accordance with weathering and a gradual erosion surface lowering. The lower bonanza forms at first in the process of oxidation involving pyrite and native sulfur. Gold may be transported by complexes with metastable sulfur oxy-anions: sulfites, thiosulfates, or polythionates. The upper enriched horizon forms in the course of further evolution of the weathering profile in the stage of hematite recrystallizaiton and its transformation into goethite.     

中亚构造域多期叠加斑岩铜矿化:以阿尔泰东南缘哈腊苏铜矿床地质、地球化学和成岩成矿时代研究为例

新疆青河县新近发现哈腊苏铜矿床,正在进行的勘探证实具有大型铜储量前景。它位于阿尔泰东南缘,靠近额尔齐斯构造变形带。这个区域经历了古生代中期的洋-陆俯冲、古生代晚期的陆-陆碰撞以及其后的陆内活化等地质过程。铜成矿与哪种地质地质过程有关受人关注,矿床成因也存在斑岩型、热液脉型和火山岩型等不同认识。哈腊苏铜矿区主要出露中泥盆统基性火山岩(含苦橄岩)及侵入其中的不同时期含铜蚀变斑岩体,包括花岗闪长斑岩、斑状花岗岩、石英二长斑岩和石英闪长斑岩等,斑岩SiO_2质量分数为57.24%～65.45%,其中花岗闪长斑岩δ~(18)O_(V-SMOW)=7.9‰～8.6‰,ε_(Nd)(t)=7.3～8.5(接近于MORB值),(~(87)Sr/~(86)Sr)_t=0.70383～0.70410(接近原始地幔值),暗示岩浆起源于地幔或下地壳。矿区含铜蚀变斑岩全岩矿化(Cu 0.2%),矿体(Cu 0.3%以上)呈透镜状和不规则分枝脉状,产状与斑岩体相仿,95%以上矿体产于斑岩体内。围岩蚀变从矿体到斑岩再到基性火山岩围岩,发育钾长石黑云母化、黑云母绿泥石化、青磐岩化的分带,后期脉状线型钾长石化叠加于早期面状弥散型钾硅酸盐蚀变之上。没有次生硫化物富集现象,原生铜矿石出现细脉浸染型和脉状叠加型两种自然类型,前者以"黄铁矿+黄铜矿+辉钼矿"为典型金属矿物组合,后者呈在前者背景上的"石英+黄铁矿+黄铜矿"脉状叠加矿化。相对于前者,后者Cu、Au品位明显偏高(分别达到Cu 2.21%、Au 0.83 g/t)、微量和稀土元素总量降低,微量元素蛛网图和REE配分曲线更为平缓,Eu正异常更加显著。基性火山喷发、幔源岩浆侵入和多期矿化叠加是哈腊苏铜成矿的关键,早期斑岩型铜成矿基础上的后期构造热液矿化叠加显著。细脉浸染型铜矿石中共生黄铁矿-黄铜矿的硫同位素温度计指示斑岩型铜成矿温度为420～560℃。铜矿石硫化物δ~(34)S_(V-CDT)主体范围为-1‰～-4‰,矿石硫源自幔源斑岩体(有地层硫酸盐还原硫少量混入);黄铁矿~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb=18.052～18.461,~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb=15.501～15.606,~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb=37.813～39.335,与矿床所在区域喀拉通克岩浆Cu-Ni硫化物接近,成矿金属主体来自幔源斑岩;脉状矿化叠加型铜矿石中含铜硫化物石英脉晶出母液(δ~(18)O_(V-SMOW)=6.4‰～10.2‰,δD_(V-SMOW)=-89‰～-80‰)具有岩浆水的O、H同位素组成特点。通过成岩、成矿和热液蚀变的年代学研究获得:(1)含铜蚀变的斑状花岗岩(381.6±2.5)Ma和花岗闪长斑岩(371.8±9.6)Ma的U-Pb谐和年龄、细脉浸染型铜矿石中辉钼矿(376.9±2.2)Ma的Re-Os等时线年龄,是洋-陆俯冲期斑岩成岩成矿的年龄记录;(2)含铜蚀变石英二长斑岩(265.6±3.7)Ma的U-Pb谐和年龄和脉状叠加型铜矿石中钾长石(269.2±3.2)Ma的Ar-Ar坪年龄,是陆-陆碰撞晚期斑岩铜矿化蚀变的年龄记录;(3)含铜蚀变石英闪长斑岩(215.8±4.6)Ma的U-Pb谐和年龄和脉状叠加型铜矿石中钾长石(198.2±2.3)～(206.4±2.7)Ma的Ar-Ar坪年龄,是陆内构造岩浆活化期的年龄记录。多期构造-岩浆-热液矿化叠加作用是哈腊苏铜成矿的显著特征。该研究为认识中亚构造域斑岩铜矿床的多期叠加成矿作用特征积累了新资料。     

Delineation of mineralization zones in porphyry Cu deposits by fractal concentration–volume modeling

The purpose of this study was to identify the various mineralization zones especially supergene enrichment and hypogene in two different Iranian porphyry Cu deposits, based on subsurface data and by using the proposed concentration–volume (C–V) fractal method. The Sungun and Chah-Firuzeh porphyry Cu deposits, which are situated in NW and SE Iran, respectively, were selected for this study. Straight lines fitted through log–log plots showing C–V relations for Cu were employed to separate supergene enrichment and hypogene zones from oxidation zones and barren host rocks in the two deposits and to distinguish a skarn mineralized zone from the hypogene zone in Sungun deposit. In the proposed C–V fractal method, the identification of mineralization zones is based on power–law relationships between Cu concentrations and the volume of rocks hosting porphyry Cu mineralization. Separate subsurface data from the two deposits were analyzed by C–V fractal method and the results have been compared with geological models which included alteration and mineralogical models. The comparison shows that the interpreted zones based on the C–V fractal method are consistent with the geological models. The proposed C–V method is a new approach to defining zones in a mineral deposit and there was no commercial software available to perform the relevant calculations; therefore, a fractal concentration–volume (FCV) software was designed by the authors to achieve this goal.     

A combined fluid inclusion and S–Pb isotope study of the Neoproterozoic Pingshui volcanogenic massive sulfide Cu–Zn deposit,Southeast China

The Pingshui Cu–Zn deposit is located in the Jiangshan–Shaoxing fault zone, which marks the Neoproterozoic suture zone between the Yangtze block and Cathaysia block in South China. It contains 0.45 million tons of proven ore reserves with grades of 1.03 wt.% Cu and 1.83 wt.% Zn. This deposit is composed of stratiform, massive sulfide ore bodies, which contain more than 60 vol.% sulfide minerals. These ore bodies are hosted in altered mafic and felsic rocks (spilites and keratophyres) of the bimodal volcanic suite that makes up the Neoproterozoic Pingshui Formation. Metallic minerals include pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, tennantite, tetrahedrite and magnetite, with minor galena. Gangue minerals are quartz, sericite, chlorite, calcite, gypsum, barite and jasper. Three distinct mineralogical zones are recognized in these massive sulfide ore bodies: a distal zone composed of sphalerite + pyrite + barite (zone I); an intermediate zone characterized by a pyrite + sphalerite + chalcopyrite assemblages (zone II); and a proximal zone containing chalcopyrite + pyrite + magnetite (zone III). A thin, layer of exhalative jaspilite overlies the sulfide ore bodies except in the proximal zone. The volcanic rocks of the Pingshui Formation are all highly altered spilites and keratophyres, but their trace element geochemistry suggests that they were generated by partial melting of the depleted mantle in an island arc setting. Homogenization temperatures of the primary fluid inclusions in quartz from massive sulfide ores are between 217 and 328 °C, and their salinities range from 3.2 to 5.7 wt.% NaCl equivalent. Raman spectroscopy of the fluid inclusions showed that water is the dominant component, with no other volatile components. Fluid inclusion data suggest that the ore-forming fluids were derived from circulating seawater. The δ³⁴S values of pyrite from the massive sulfide ores range from − 3.6‰ to + 3.4‰, indicating that the sulfur was primarily leached from the arc volcanic rocks of the Pingshui Formation. Both pyrite from the massive sulfide ores and plagioclase from the spilites have similar lead isotope compositions, implying that the lead was also derived from the Pingshui Formation. The low lead contents of the massive sulfide ores and the geochemistry of their host rocks are similar to many VMS Cu–Zn deposits in Canada (e.g., Noranda) and thus can be classified as belonging to the bimodal-mafic subtype. The presence of magnetite and the absence of jaspilite and barite at the − 505 m level in the Pingshui deposit suggest that this level is most likely the central zone of the original lateral massive sulfide ore bodies. If this interpretation is correct, the deep part of the Pingshui Cu–Zn deposit may have significant exploration potential.