是蹄窝,不是壶穴——北京西山古道蹄窝成因考

北京境内的西部山区统称为北京西山,亦简称京西,是北京西部的天然屏障,也是京城连接河北、山西和内蒙古等地的重要通道。京西矿产资源丰富,尤其盛产优质煤炭,是京城重要的能源基地。京西风景秀美,宗教文化渊源深厚,是北京周边的宗教圣地。连接京西重要军事设施、宗教场所和数百个自然村落的古代道路统称京西古道,主要繁荣于明清年间。随着现代铁路和公路开通,这些古道渐渐冷清。但近年来,成了人们郊游的良好场所。在人工开凿修建的古道上(大型铺砌路石和垭口基岩路面)散布着许多直径十几厘米的圆形凹坑,本是运送煤炭等货物的驮畜数百年间长期不断踩踏的产物,因此通常被称为"蹄窝"。近年来,这些蹄窝却被某些地质学家当作天然形成的"壶穴"在网上作科普宣传,且被许多游人信以为真。本文从京西古道的发展史、元明清三朝京西煤矿的开采历史文献等方面对京西古道进行了考证,特别对京西古道上的蹄窝首次进行了系统的测量与描述,从其空间分布、形成的时间要素、微观特征、永定河及大石河河谷中的天然壶穴对比、人文历史证据以及与中国国内其他古道的视频资料等诸多方面对蹄窝的成因进行了讨论,证实京西古道上的蹄窝不是水流冲刷形成的壶穴,而是运送煤炭等货物的驮畜数百年间不断踩踏所形成的蹄坑。在蹄窝的形成过程中,不排除有岩石的差异性风化和溶蚀作用的参与,但这种作用远小于牲蹄踩踏的机械作用。     

关于基岩山坡上的暴雨流冲刷坑被误认为驮兽蹄窝的讨论

山脉的隆升与夷平无不与地表岩石的风化剥蚀密切相关,暴雨冲刷作用对山区岩石的风化剥蚀至关重要。雨水顺着倾斜的山坡迅速汇聚,形成湍急洪流,冲携山坡上的砂砾与小石块,对石坡上原先小幅度的洼凹之地或薄弱部位进行机械性磨蚀与化学溶蚀,上述地质过程不断重复,逐渐形成山坡壶穴。美国加州华斯克巨岩公园、澳大利亚中部大红山以及中国北京西山的山坡壶穴都是暴雨流壶穴的典型例子。可惜过去一段时间里北京西山地区的山坡壶穴被误认为是"京西古道上骡马驴踩出来的蹄坑",这样解释的前提条件是在数百年间、数以万计的骡马驴不断地踩进同一处、且不断加深的石头蹄坑。动物行为学研究表明,马之类的动物在行走过程中会本能地躲避踩进较深(≥5~10 cm)的洼坑或水坑,以防扭伤蹄腕或折断腿骨。世界上著名的铺石古道上只见车辙痕不见马蹄坑,亦是有力的证明。     

壶穴差异风化或风蚀作用成因质疑

过去十年来发表了一系列关于中国东部第四纪冰川地貌的文章,而关于壶穴成因的争论也通过各种媒介报道出来。笔者等建议壶穴仅仅用于表示快速旋转水流在基岩表面形成的近圆筒形的凹坑,以口小肚大底平为典型形态特征,而冰川融水冲蚀形成的壶穴则叫做冰川壶穴。近年来,有些研究者将中国东部花岗岩山脊上的壶穴与差异风化和风蚀作用联系起来。笔者等分析了风化作用和风蚀作用的特点,明确指出：风化作用和风蚀作用并非壶穴形成的原因,唯一可能的成因是快速的河水或冰川融水的旋转水流。因此,在中国南方河床上发现的壶穴既可能是河流流水形成的,也可能是第四纪山谷冰川融水造成的;而中国北方花岗岩山脊上的壶穴只能是曾经覆盖其上的第四纪冰帽在冰川退缩期之冰川融水形成的。所以,花岗岩山脊上的壶穴为冰川壶穴（即冰臼）,可以看作第四纪冰帽的标志。根据中国东部壶穴的分布特征推断：中国东部之北方在第四纪末次冰盛期至少曾经存在着许多冰帽甚至大陆冰川,而其南部边缘至少已经达到山东蒙山以南。     

壶穴、锅穴、冰臼、岩臼等术语的辨析与使用建议

由于专家喜好不同和几本权威汉语专业辞典互不一致,壶穴、锅穴、冰臼、岩臼等术语的使用和理解存在着较严重的混乱状况。①本文建议应统一将“pothole”译为壶穴,表示基岩表面tg侵蚀而形成的一种凹坑;“kettlehole”或“kettle”译为锅穴,代表冰川沉积区因冰体融化而形成的洼地。②对于“冰臼”、“岩臼”的使用,两作者亦未能达成共识：吕洪波建议继续使用“冰臼”,等同于“冰川壶穴”,对应于“glacial pothole”,摒弃“岩臼”这一新的提法;章雨旭建议修改“壶穴”的原始定义,不再强调其快速旋转水流成因,仅强调其“口小、肚大、底平”的形态特征,同时摒弃“冰臼”和“岩臼”等术语,仅用“壶穴”一词,若强调“壶穴”的不同成因．可在其前面加注成因术语,如“冰川壶穴”、“河成壶穴”、“风化壶穴”等。③对于其他凹坑,有专用名称的用专用名称,如风化穴（tafoni）、风蚀凹槽、风龛（alcove）等;没有的则用一般词汇,称为“坑”、“穴”、“洞”（pit,hollow,cavity）等。     

福建福安白云山河床侵蚀微地貌特征及成因浅析

福安白云山蟾溪、龙亭溪、长洋溪为花岗岩峡谷溪流,河谷中发育有数量众多、规模巨大、形态各异的石穴、凹槽,成为遐迩闻名的“地学奇观”。调查表明,白云山河床基岩及岸壁上所发育的石穴、凹槽,是更新世以来河床受不同水动力条件影响及大气降水长期侵蚀形成的各类壶穴、垂直冲蚀弧形凹槽等,是发育在晶洞碱长花岗岩中的河床侵蚀微地貌。流水及漩涡流侵蚀,砂、卵石随漩涡流磨蚀是形成壶穴的主要外动力。河床岸壁上垂直冲蚀弧形凹槽主要由大气降水侵蚀而成。白云山地区河床壶穴数量众多、类型齐全,系统地展示了不同水动力条件流水侵蚀作用、壶穴发展及基岩河床演化过程,是宝贵的地质遗迹。     

福建屏南白水洋地貌特征及成因浅析

福建屏南白水洋不仅风光旖旎,更以"浅水广场"遐迩闻名,被誉为"天下绝景,宇宙之谜".经调查研究,白水洋是在地壳运动相对稳定时期由九岭溪和仙耙溪流水长期侵蚀形成的一个平底基岩河床,石英正长斑岩是构成平底基岩河床的物质基础,风化剥蚀、流水侵蚀是形成白水洋的主要外动力地质作用.流水侵蚀作用还形成形态各异的水蚀基岩波痕、水蚀凹槽、壶穴、流水侧蚀凹洞、弧形岸壁、波状岸壁、侵蚀阶地等地貌.     

广东雷州半岛火山凝灰岩河流壶穴的形成机制

河流壶穴是一种常见的河床微地貌,是基岩河床下切的方式之一.壶穴的形成受岩性、气候和动力条件等诸多因素影响,形成机制较为复杂.本研究以广东雷州半岛火山凝灰岩河流壶穴为研究对象,对壶穴的岩性特征、形态特征、空间分布特征等展开研究,分析火山凝灰岩河流壶穴的形成机制及地貌过程.结果表明:1)雷州半岛火山凝灰岩壶穴数量多,规模大...     

华北山地多成因壶穴初步研究——对华北山地“冰臼”等“冰川地貌”的讨论

华北山地"距今二、三百万年"的"冰臼"绝大部分位于第四纪河谷内,"距今1～2万年"的"冰川壶穴"位于全新世河谷内,与华北山地地貌演化相矛盾;所谓的"冰川地貌"组合不是真正的地貌组合,而是不同时代、不同成因地貌的混合,因此,华北山地不存在冰臼。所谓的"冰臼"是不同时代、多种成因的壶穴——距今2.50Ma前后的河蚀壶穴,距今10～20ka的雪蚀壶穴,距今10ka以来的溶蚀穴、溶蚀—河蚀壶穴、风化—风蚀壶穴、现代壶穴和水潭。     

川北旺苍苍王峡龙潭子河壶穴形态及成因初探

河成壶穴是山区河床基岩上常见的微地貌类型,记录了区域地貌演化过程、水流与河床边界相互作用的关键信息。基于此,笔者等以川北旺苍苍王峡龙潭子河110处河成壶穴为研究对象,详细测量其形态特征并进行统计分析。结果表明：非串珠状壶穴大小、深度及形态在河床纵剖面上的分布没有明显的规律性,而串珠状壶穴具有一定的规律性;壶穴集中分布在下寒武统阎王碥组硅质砾岩中,其中发育的石英砂岩夹层对壶穴的形成和演化起到了关键性作用,双层天生桥壶穴则是典型的代表;区内发育NE、E—W向平面共轭X型构造节理和S—N向构造节理,三角形、菱形、不规则形壶穴多受两组或3组节理控制,其中S—N向构造节理还控制了壶穴的长轴走向和河谷走向;构造节理对壶穴口形态的演化影响显著,而对壶穴垂直剖面形态的影响不显著。本研究将丰富和完善河成壶穴地貌的数据资料,为米仓山地区河流地貌和构造演化提供科学依据。     

川北旺苍苍王峡龙潭子河壶穴形态及成因初探

河成壶穴是山区河床基岩上常见的微地貌类型,记录了区域地貌演化过程、水流与河床边界相互作用的关键信息。基于此,本文以川北旺苍苍王峡龙潭子河110处河成壶穴为研究对象,详细测量其形态特征并进行统计分析。结果表明：非串珠状壶穴大小、深度及形态在河床纵剖面上的分布没有明显的规律性,而串珠状壶穴具有一定的规律性;壶穴集中分布在下寒武统阎王碥组硅质砾岩中,其中发育的石英砂岩夹层对壶穴的形成和演化起到了关键性作用,双层天生桥壶穴则是典型的代表;区内发育NE、E—W向平面共轭X型构造节理和S—N向构造节理,三角形、菱形、不规则形壶穴多受两组或 3 组节理控制,其中S—N向构造节理还控制了壶穴的长轴走向和河谷走向;构造节理对壶穴口形态的演化影响显著,而对壶穴垂直剖面形态的影响不显著。本研究将丰富和完善河成壶穴地貌的数据资料,为米仓山地区河流地貌和构造演化提供科学依据。     

Magnitude-frequency distribution in the European-Mediterranean earthquake regions

The European-Mediterranean earthquake catalogue from 1901 to 1985, which comprises uniformly determined magnitudes M_S and m_B(h ≥ 60 km) of 13300 events, was used in the study of cumulative magnitude-frequency relationships N_c(M) compiled for 75 earthquake regions and 25 larger provinces. In the whole magnitude range observed, the Gutenberg-Richter formula log N_c(M) = a − bM very rarely fits the cumulative (log N_c, M) distributions. The b-values of log-linear segments of N_c(M) vary regionally from b = 0.7 to b = 1.3; averaging of all values leads to (shallow events, M_S and ).

Most distributions pertain to the Mediterranean area (b = 0.86 from the graph for shallow events) and many of them indicate the existence of characteristic earthquakes in accordance with the theoretical single-fault model. Other observed shapes of N_c(M) can be explained by the superposition of populations of different M_max values or by the presence of swarm-type activity. The observed N_c(M) distributions depend very much on the delineation of earthquake regions i.e. on the number and dimension of seismoactive faults in the investigated region.

A premonitory enhancement of medium earthquake activity (M = 4.5–5.5) can be observed only very rarely.     

Scaling properties of landslides in the Rif mountains of Morocco

Landslides in the central Rif mountains (Morocco) were analyzed by multifractal analysis. Our results suggest that spatial distribution of landslides in the region is not a homogeneous fractal structure but a heterogeneous one with generalized dimensions D(1)=1.713>D(2)>…>D(12)=1.325. The value of D(12)=D(∞) is the fractal dimension of the most intensive clustering in the heterogeneous fractal set. It is worthwhile to note that we found D(0)<D(1). The analysis of areas affected by sliding from the geological map of Beni Ahmed at a scale 1:50 000 shows the power law size distribution: N(A>a)∝a^−1.57. This confirms the scale invariance of sliding and suggests that real landslides may exhibit a Self-Organized Criticality (SOC) behaviour.     

Groundwater radon anomalies associated with earthquakes

Earthquake-related changes in groundwater radon have been detected at a sensitive observation site located right on a major active fault in Northeast Japan. A time-series analysis based on Bayesian statistics was successfully applied to remove background variations from the observed radon data, enabling us to examine the earthquake-related changes in detail.

We set a simple criterion of amplitude and duration for an anomaly observed in our radon data; we define an anomaly as a radon change that kept its level beyond 2σ (a standard deviation over the whole observation period) during a period longer than one day. We have observed 20 radon anomalies that satisfied this criterion from January 1984 to December 1988. Most of these anomalies have turned out to be related to large earthquakes that occurred in East Japan and its surrounding area; we have identified 12 post-seismic and 2-pre-seismic radon anomalies out of a total of 30 earthquakes with magnitude M 6.0 and hypocentral distance D 1000 km.

The typical pattern of the post-seismic anomalies is a radon decrease which started just after an earthquake, lasting for periods ranging from a few days to more than one week. The amplitude of the post-seismic anomalies depends on both magnitude and hypocentral distance, and can, in general, be expressed by a simple magnitude-distance relationships.

A possible pre-seismic anomaly was observed about one week before the largest earthquake that occurred in this region during the observation period (March 6, 1984; M = 7.9, D = 1000 km). Another possible pre-seismic anomaly was observed about three days before two nearby large earthquakes that occurred at almost the same place in a time interval of 53 min (February 6, 1987; M = 6.4 and M = 6.7, D = 130 km).     

Strontium diffusion in sanidine and albite, and general comments on strontium diffusion in alkali feldspars

Strontium chemical diffusion has been measured in albite and sanidine under dry, 1 atm, and QFM buffered conditions. Strontium oxide-aluminosilicate powdered sources were used to introduce the diffusant and Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy (RBS) used to measure diffusion profiles. For the 1 atm experiments, the following Arrhenius relations were obtained:

Sanidine (Or₆₁), temperature range 725–1075°C, diffusion normal to (001): D=8.4 exp(−450±13 kJ mol⁻¹/RT) m²s⁻¹. Albite (Or₁), temperature range 675–1025°C, diffusion normal to (001): D=2.9 × exp(−224±11 kJ mol⁻¹/RT) m²s⁻¹.

The alkali feldspars in this and earlier work display a broad range of activation energies for Sr diffusion, which may be a consequence of the thermodynamic non-ideality of the alkali feldspar system and/or the mixed alkali effect.     

Effect of Fe on garnet–melt trace element partitioning: experiments in FCMAS and quantification of crystal-chemical controls in natural systems

Garnet–melt trace element partitioning experiments were performed in the system FeO–CaO–MgO–Al₂O₃–SiO₂ (FCMAS) at 3 GPa and 1540°C, aimed specifically at studying the effect of garnet Fe²⁺ content on partition coefficients (D^Grt/Melt). D^Grt/Melt, measured by SIMS, for trivalent elements entering the garnet X-site show a small but significant dependence on garnet almandine content. This dependence is rationalised using the lattice strain model of Blundy and Wood [Blundy, J.D., Wood, B.J., 1994. Prediction of crystal–melt partition coefficients from elastic moduli. Nature 372, 452–454], which describes partitioning of an element i with radius r_i and valency Z in terms of three parameters: the effective radius of the site r₀(Z), the strain-free partition coefficient D₀(Z) for a cation with radius r₀(Z), and the apparent compressibility of the garnet X-site given by its Young's modulus E_X(Z). Combination of these results with data in Fe-free systems [Van Westrenen, W., Blundy, J.D., Wood, B.J., 1999. Crystal-chemical controls on trace element partitioning between garnet and anhydrous silicate melt. Am. Mineral. 84, 838–847] and crystal structure data for spessartine, andradite, and uvarovite, leads to the following equations for r₀(3+) and E_X(3+) as a function of garnet composition (X) and pressure (P):

r₀(3+) [Å]=0.930X_Py+0.993X_Gr+0.916X_Alm+0.946X_Spes+1.05(X_And+X_Uv)−0.005(P [GPa]−3.0)(±0.005 Å)

E_X(3+) [GPa]=3.5×10¹²(1.38+r₀(3+) [Å])^−26.7(±30 GPa)

Accuracy of these equations is shown by application to the existing garnet–melt partitioning database, covering a wide range of P and T conditions (1.8 GPa<P<5.0 GPa; 975°C<T<1640°C). D^Grt/Melt for all 3+ elements entering the X-site (REE, Sc and Y) are predicted to within 10–40% at given P, T, and X, when D^Grt/Melt for just one of these elements is known. In the absence of such knowledge, relative element fractionation (e.g. D_Sm^Grt/Melt/D_Nd^Grt/Melt) can be predicted. As an example, we predict that during partial melting of garnet peridotite, group A eclogite, and garnet pyroxenite, r₀(3+) for garnets ranges from 0.939±0.005 to 0.953±0.009 Å. These values are consistently smaller than the ionic radius of the heaviest REE, Lu. The above equations quantify the crystal-chemical controls on garnet–melt partitioning for the REE, Y and Sc. As such, they represent a major advance en route to predicting D^Grt/Melt for these elements as a function of P, T and X.     

Fractal models for the fragmentation of rocks and soils: a review

Fragmentation, the process of breaking apart into fragments, is caused by the propagation of multiple fractures at different length scales. Such fractures can be induced by dynamic crack growth during compressive/tensile loading or by stress waves during impact loading. Fragmentation of rocks occurs in resoonse to tectonic activity, percussive drilling, grinding and blasting. Soil fragmentation is the result of tillage and planting operations. Fractal theory, which deals with the scaling of hierarchical and irregur systems, offers new opportunities for modeling the fragmentation process. This paper reviews the literature on fractal models for the fragmentation of heterogeneous brittle earth materials. Fractal models are available for the fragmentation of: (1) classical aggregate; (2) aggregates with fractal pore space; and (3) aggregates with fractal surfaces. In each case, the aggregates are composed of building blocks of finite size. Structural failure is hierarchical in nature and takes place by multiple fracturing of the aggregated building blocks. The resulting number-size distribution of fragments depends on the probability of failure, P(1/bⁱ) at each level in the hierarchy. Models for both scale-invariant and scale-dependent are reviewed. In the case of scale-invariant P(1/bⁱ)< 1, theory predict: D_f = 3 + log [P(1/bⁱ)]/log[b] for classical aggregates; D_f=D_m+log[P(1/bⁱ)]/log[b] for aggregates with fractal pore space; and D_f=D_s for aggregates with fractal surfaces. where b is a scaling factor and D_f, D_m and D_s are the fragmentation, mass and surface fractal dimensions, respectively. The physical significance of these parameters is discussed, methods of estimating them are reviewed, and topics needing further research are identified.     

A palaeomagnetic study of some basaltoids and ores from the Pontic Ranges, Northern Turkey: Palaeogeographic implications

The palaeomagnetism of basic rocks and sulphide ores has been studied in the Küre area, Pontic Ranges, Turkey. Progressive alternating-field demagnetization revealed a characteristic remanent magnetization in all investigated rock types except a dacite. The following virtual geomagnetic poles were obtained:

Basalt and quartz diabase (oldest): D = 59°, I = +66°, ₉₅ = 4.8, pole 49°N, 93°E. Diabase: D = 210°, I = −15°, ₉₅ = 15.0, pole 47°N, 167°E. Massive sulphide ores: D = 107°, I = +63°, ₉₅ = 8.7, pole 18°N, 80°E. Peridotite: D = 131°, I = +54°, ₉₅ = 10.9, pole 2°S, 72°E. Amphibolitized diabase (youngest): D = 293°, I = +59°, ₉₅ = 12.6, pole 40°S, 145°E.

The longidutinal difference in pole positions between the oldest and the youngest rocks is interpreted as being due to a post-Permian counterclockwise rotation of the studied region in relation to the African continent. In addition, there are indications of local rotational movements within the Küre area.     

Scaling of fault displacements from the Badajoz-Córdoba shear zone, SW spain

Faulting occurs over a large range of scale, parts of which are sampled by various techniques (e.g., microscopy, outcrop measurement, mapping, seismic reflection and other forms of remote sensing). Use of a single technique to measure displacement or strain will not sample faults at all scales and hence will give a biased estimate. In order to assess this bias, a knowledge of the distribution over all scales is needed.

Many samples of fault displacement appear to follow a power-law distribution, with departures which can be attributed to sampling effects. The number of faults with a displacement u is given by N(u) = Cu^−D. The power-law distribution of displacement is consistent with similar distributions of other fault parameters and earthquake magnitudes. When sampling along a line (e.g., a bedding trace on a map or section), a self-similar fault population would have D = 1, whereas self-affine geometries yield D≠ 1. Displacement and extension are dominated by small faults when D > 1 and by large faults when D < 1. When sampling over areas or volumes these critical values are 2 and 3, respectively.

A set of strike-slip faults from the Badajoz-Córdoba Shear Zone, Spain, were sampled at two different scales using 1:50000 maps and outcrop measurements. Displacement ranges over 6 orders of magnitude. These and other fault populations typically have D ranging from 0.6 to 1.5.

The power-law relationship may be integrated to yield estimates of the displacement (or extension) for faults which lie beyond the resolution of the sampling system. For example, a knowledge of D allows the extension measured on a map or seismic section to be “corrected” for faults whose displacement is below the resolution of the survey. Based on an overall estimate of D = 0.9 for the Badajoz-Córdoba data, only some 40% of the extension would be recorded by map-scale faults. A corrected extension of 41% along the shear zone is estimated; which if typical for the entire 300 km zone represents some 87 km of along-strike extension. Thus, work suggests that significant displacement occurs on faults which are too small to be interpreted from conventional seismic profiles and geological maps.