Interaction of an anticyclonic eddy with sea ice in the western Arctic Ocean: an eddy-resolving model study

The dramatic decline of summer sea ice extent and thickness has been witnessed in the western Arctic Ocean in recent decades, which hasmotivated scientists to search for possible factors driving the sea ice variability. An eddy-resolving, ice-ocean coupled model covering the entire Arctic Ocean is implemented, with focus on the western Arctic Ocean. Special attention is paid to the summer Alaskan coastal current (ACC), which has a high temperature (up to 5℃ ormore) in the upper layer due to the solar radiation over the open water at the lower latitude. Downstream of the ACC after Barrow Point, a surface-intensified anticyclonic eddy is frequently generated and propagate towards the Canada Basin during the summer season when sea ice has retreated away from the coast. Such an eddy has a warm core, and its source is high-temperature ACC water. A typical warm-core eddy is traced. It is trapped just below summer sea ice melt water and has a thickness about 60 m. Temperature in the eddy core reaches 2-3℃, and most water inside the eddy has a temperature over 1℃. With a definition of the eddy boundary, an eddy heat is calculated, which can melt 1 600 km² of 1mthick sea ice under extreme conditions.     

Regional estimates of POC export flux derived from thorium-234 in the western Arctic Ocean

1Introduction CarboncyclingintheArcticOceanplaysanim- portantroletoglobalchange.Traditionally,marine productivityintheArcticOceanisthoughttobevery low,andthussomebiogeochemicalprocessessuchas particleexportandcyclingofnutrientsarenotsoac- tivebecauseofthembeingcoveredperenniallybyice, lowtemperatureandshorttimeofphotosynthesis (PlattandRao,1975).Afewpreviousestimatesof particulateorganiccarbon(POC)exportindicateda neglectablemagnitudeinthecentralArcticOcean (Baconetal.,1989).However,recen…     

Distribution of radium-224 in the western Arctic Ocean

1Introduction ThephysicalcharacteristicsintheArcticOcean includewidecontinentalshelves,accountingfor36% oftheocean’ssurfacearea(MooreandSmith,1986) withseasonalicecover.Theprincipalwatersentering theArcticOceanarefromtheNorthAtlanticviathe FramStraitandtheBarentsSea,andtheNorthPacific viatheBeringStrait.Withinthearcticinterior,thewa- tersjoininthelarge-scalecirculationandaresubse- quentlymodifiedbyprocessesofair/sea/iceinterac- tion,riverinflow,andexchangewithsurrounding shelves.Howeve…     

On the future navigability of Arctic sea routes: High-resolution projections of the Arctic Ocean and sea ice

The rapid Arctic summer sea ice reduction in the last decade has lead to debates in the maritime industries on the possibility of an increase in cargo transportation in the region. Average sailing times on the North Sea Route along the Siberian Coast have fallen from 20 days in the 1990s to 11 days in 2012–2013, attributed to easing sea ice conditions along the Siberian coast. However, the economic risk of exploiting the Arctic shipping routes is substantial. Here a detailed high-resolution projection of ocean and sea ice to the end of the 21st century forced with the RCP8.5 IPCC emission scenario is used to examine navigability of the Arctic sea routes. In summer, opening of large areas of the Arctic Ocean previously covered by pack ice to the wind and surface waves leads to Arctic pack ice cover evolving into the Marginal Ice Zone. The emerging state of the Arctic Ocean features more fragmented thinner sea ice, stronger winds, ocean currents and waves. By the mid 21st century, summer season sailing times along the route via the North Pole are estimated to be 13–17 days, which could make this route as fast as the North Sea Route.     

热带印度洋和太平洋海气相互作用事件的协调发展

对次表层海温距平的分布和变化的分析表明,在热带印度洋和太平洋都存在海温距平的偶极子模态,即在赤道附近大洋东、西两个部分的海温距平在不少年份呈反符号分布。进一步分析表明,两大洋海温距平的偶极子模态间有密切的联系。在分析它们和850hPa纬向风距平后指出,正是Walker环流异常把两大洋的海温距平变化联系起来。     

Enhancement/reduction of biological pump depends on ocean circulation in the sea-ice reduction regions of the Arctic Ocean

The biological pump is a central process in the ocean carbon cycle, and is a key factor controlling atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂). However, whether the Arctic biological pump is enhanced or reduced by the recent loss of sea ice is still unclear. We examined if the effect was dependent on ocean circulation. Melting of sea ice can both enhance and reduce the biological pump in the Arctic Ocean, depending on ocean circulation. The biological pump is reduced within the Beaufort Gyre in the Canada Basin because freshwater accumulation within the gyre limits nutrient supply from deep layers and shelves hence inhibits the growth of large-bodied phytoplankton. Conversely, the biological pump is enhanced outside the Beaufort Gyre in the western Arctic Ocean because of nutrient supply from shelves and greater light penetration, enhancing photosynthesis, caused by the sea ice loss. The biological pump could also be enhanced by sea ice loss in the Eurasian Basin, where uplifted isohaline surfaces associated with the Transpolar Drift supply nutrients upwards from deep layers. New data on nitrate uptake rates are consistent with the pattern of enhancement and reduction of the Arctic biological pump. Our estimates indicate that the enhanced biological pump can be as large as that in other oceans when the sea ice disappears. Contrary to a recent conclusion based on data from the Canada Basin alone, our study suggests that the biological CO₂ drawdown is important for the Arctic Ocean carbon sink under ice-free conditions.     

Variation of diffuse attenuation coefficient of downwelling irradiance in the Arctic Ocean

The diffuse attenuation coefficient(Kd) for downwelling irradiance is calculated from solar irradiance data measured in the Arctic Ocean during 3rd and 4th Chinese National Arctic Research Expedition(CHINARE), including 18 stations and nine stations selected for irradiance profiles in sea water respectively. In this study, the variation of attenuation coefficient in the Arctic Ocean was studied, and the following results were obtained. First, the relationship between attenuation coefficient and chlorophyll concentration in the Arctic Ocean has the form of a power function. The best fit is at 443 nm, and its determination coefficient is more than 0.7. With increasing wavelength, the determination coefficient decreases abruptly. At 550 nm, it even reaches a value lower than 0.2. However, the exponent fitted is only half of that adapted in low-latitude ocean because of the lower chlorophyll-specific absorption in the Arctic Ocean. The upshot was that, in the case of the same chlorophyll concentration, the attenuation caused by phytoplankton chlorophyll in the Arctic Ocean is lower than in low-latitude ocean. Second, the spectral model, which exhibits the relationship of attenuation coefficients between 490 nm and other wavelength, was built and provided a new method to estimate the attenuation coefficient at other wavelength, if the attenuation coefficient at 490 nm was known. Third, the impact factors on attenuation coefficient, including sea ice and sea water mass, were discussed. The influence of sea ice on attenuation coefficient is indirect and is determined through the control of entering solar radiation. The linear relationship between averaging sea ice concentration(ASIC, from 158 Julian day to observation day) and the depth of maximum chlorophyll is fitted by a simple linear equation. In addition, the sea water mass, such as the ACW(Alaskan Coastal Water), directly affects the amount of chlorophyll through taking more nutrient, and results in the higher attenuation coefficient in the layer of 30–60 m. Consequently, the spectral model of diffuse attenuation coefficient, the relationship between attenuation coefficient and chlorophyll and the linear relationship between the ASIC and the depth of maximum chlorophyll, together provide probability for simulating the process of diffuse attenuation coefficient during summer in the Arctic Ocean.     

An Improved 20-Year Arctic Ocean Altimetric Sea Level Data Record

For ocean and climate research, it is essential to get long-term altimetric sea level data that is as accurate as possible. However, the accuracy of the altimetric data is frequently degraded in the interior of the Arctic Ocean due to the presence of seasonal or permanent sea ice. We have reprocessed ERS-1/2/Envisat satellite altimetry to develop an improved 20-year sea level dataset for the Arctic Ocean. We have developed both an along-track dataset and three-day gridded sea level anomaly (SLA) maps from September 1992 to April 2012. A major improvement in data coverage was gained by tailoring the standard altimetric editing criteria to Arctic conditions. The new reprocessed data has significant increased data coverage with between 4 and 10 times the amount of data in regions such as the Beaufort Gyre region compared with AVISO and RADS datasets. This allows for a more accurate estimation of sea level changes from satellite altimetry in the Arctic Ocean. The reprocessed dataset exhibit a mean sea level trend of 2.1 ± 1.3 mm/year (without Glacial Isostatic Adjustment correction) covering the Arctic Ocean between 66°N and 82°N with significant higher spatial coherency in the ice-covered regions than the RADS and DUACS datasets.     

夏季北冰洋无冰海域次表层暖水结构的形成机理

在夏季北冰洋的无冰海域,经常可以观测到次表层暖水现象,即在水深20～50m的范围内发生海水温度的极大值。建立了一个一维的热力学解析模式,用于研究夏季北冰洋次表层暖水的形成机制。模式的计算结果表明,太阳辐射作用是形成次表层暖水的关键因素。在北冰洋的开阔水域,大气吸收海洋热量的过程导致了海面温度下降,使温度极大值出现在次表层。海洋垂向湍流热扩散对次表层暖水温度有显著影响;当湍流热扩散较弱时,热扩散的范围较小,有利于形成次表层暖水。次表层暖水的位置随着时间的推移不断加深,温度不断增高。在北极,大气温度低于海面温度是普遍现象,次表层暖水经常发生。虽然当海面气温发生变化时,次表层海水温度结构会发生相应的变化,但次表层暖水结构形成之后,如果不受强烈天气过程的破坏,则会一直存在下去。按照本文的结论,随着北极气候变暖,海冰将进一步减少,次表层暖水现象还会明显增加,海洋对气候变化将有更加强烈的响应和反馈,对全球气候变化产生意义深远的影响。     

西北冰洋表层沉积物中生源和陆源粗组分及其沉积环境

通过中国第1至第3次北极科学考察在北冰洋西部所采集的99个表层沉积物中生源与陆源粗组分的分析,研究了该海域表层生产力的变化,有机质来源以及陆源粗颗粒物质的输入方式和影响因素.研究区域生源组分所反映的表层生产力变化与通过白令海峡进入楚科奇海的3股太平洋洋流密切相关.楚科奇海西侧高盐高营养盐的阿纳德尔流流经区域,表层生产力...     

印度洋海温异常对西北太平洋台风的影响及机制研究

基于近40 a NCEP/NCAR再分析月平均高度场、风场、涡度场、垂直速度场以及NOAA重构的海面温度(sea surface temperature,SST)资料和美国联合台风预警中心(Joint Typhoon Warning Center,JTWC)热带气旋最佳路径资料,利用合成分析方法,研究了前期春季及同期夏季印度洋海面温度同夏季西北太平洋台风活动的关系。结果表明:1)前期春季印度洋海温异常(sea surface temperature anomaly,SSTA)尤其是关键区位于赤道偏北印度洋和西南印度洋地区对西北太平洋台风活动具有显著的影响,春季印度洋海温异常偏暖年,后期夏季,110°～180°E的经向垂直环流表现为异常下沉气流,对应风场的低层低频风辐散、高层辐合的形势,这种环流形势使得低层水汽无法向上输送,对流层中层水汽异常偏少,纬向风垂直切变偏大,从而夏季西北太平洋台风频数偏少、强度偏弱,而异常偏冷年份则正好相反。2)春季印度洋异常暖年,西北太平洋副热带高压加强、西伸;而春季印度洋异常冷年,后期夏季西北太平洋副热带高压减弱、东退,这可能是引起夏季西北太平洋台风变化的另一原因。     

2010年西北冰洋浮游植物区域差异与环境关系

Global warming has caused Arctic sea ice to rapidly retreat,which is affecting phytoplankton,the primary producers at the base of the food chain,as well as the entire ecosystem.However,few studies with large spatial scales related to the Arctic Basin at high latitude have been conducted.This study aimed to investigate the relationship between changes in phytoplankton community structure and ice conditions.Fifty surface and 41 vertically stratified water samples from the western Arctic Ocean(67.0°–88°26′N,152°–178°54′W) were collected by the Chinese icebreaker R/V Xuelong from July 20 to August 30,2010 during China's fourth Arctic expedition.Using these samples,the species composition,spatial distribution,and regional disparities of phytoplankton during different stages of ice melt were assessed.A total of 157 phytoplankton taxa(5 μm) belonging to 69 genera were identified in the study area.The most abundant species were Navicula pelagica and Thalassiosira nordenskioeldii,accounting for 31.23% and 14.12% of the total phytoplankton abundance,respectively.The average abundance during the departure trip and the return trip were 797.07×10~2 cells/L and 84.94×10~2 cells/L,respectively.The highest abundance was observed at Sta.R09 in the north of Herald Shoal,where Navicula pelagica was the dominant species accounting for 59.42% of the abundance.The vertical distribution of phytoplankton abundance displayed regional differences,and the maximum abundances were confined to the lower layers of the euphotic zone near the layers of the halocline,thermocline,and nutricline.The species abundance of phytoplankton decreased from the low-latitude shelf to the high-latitude basin on both the departure and return trips.The phytoplankton community structure in the shallow continental shelf changed markedly during different stages of ice melt,and there was shift in dominant species from centric to pennate diatoms.Results of canonical correspondence analysis(CCA) showed that there were two distinct communities of phytoplankton in the western Arctic Ocean,and water temperature,ice coverage and silicate concentration were the most important environmental factors affecting phytoplankton distribution in the surveyed sea.These findings will help predict the responses of phytoplankton to the rapid melting of Arctic sea ice.     

Atmospheric input of trace elements to the western Pacific Ocean and the Kuroshio ocean area

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白令海及西北冰洋有机质来源与新鲜程度的脂肪酸指示

白令海、西北冰洋等高生产力海域在北冰洋“生物泵”中起到重要作用;海水升温、海冰消退等北极快速变化,将强烈影响该海域“生物泵”的结构与规模,并在沉积物中有机质的来源与新鲜程度上有所体现,可用脂肪酸加以指征。对第五次、第六次中国北极科学考察在以上海域采集的表层沉积物进行脂肪酸含量（以沉积物干重计）及组成分析,结果显示楚科奇海陆架总脂肪酸含量非常高((97.15± 55.31) μg/g),白令海盆最低((15.00±1.30) μg/g),加拿大海盆、楚科奇海陆坡、白令海陆架居中(分别为(88.65 ± 3.52) μg/g,(70.35±11.32) μg/g与(38.28±14.89) μg/g)。海源脂肪酸占总脂肪酸比例最高(86.82%±7.08%),陆源次之(8.45%±6.62%),细菌最低(4.63%±2.24%);硅藻指数(16:1ω9/16:0)在楚科奇海陆架(> 0.82)、白令海陆架边缘(> 0.65)较高,其他区域均较低。脂肪酸结果表明:(1) 该海域沉积有机质主要来自海源,陆源贡献小;在北部、南部楚科奇海陆架、白令海陆架边缘,硅藻生物量占主要优势;细菌脂肪酸比例显著低于温暖海域,指示低温抑制细菌活动。(2) 楚科奇海陆架区硅藻生产力高、细菌活动弱,新鲜有机质沉降效率高,但对未来海水升温、浮游植物群落变化也较为敏感。(3) 加拿大海盆、楚科奇海陆坡的浮游植物群落由绿藻与金藻主导。以上结论说明脂肪酸可指示表层沉积物中有机质的来源与新鲜程度;未来,脂肪酸有望进一步揭示北冰洋“生物泵”对北极快速变化的响应。     

The saturation of calcite and aragonite in the Arctic Ocean

We report on the chemical saturation of CaCO₃ in the waters of the Arctic Ocean calculated from total alkalinity (A_T) and total dissolved inorganic carbon (C_T). Data based on four different expeditions are presented: International Arctic Ocean Expedition (IAOE-91), Arctic Ocean Section 94 (AOS94), Polarstern Arctic '96 expedition (ACSYS 96), and Joint Ocean Ice Study 97 (JOIS 97). The results show a lysocline at around 3500 m for aragonite and that most of the Arctic Ocean sea floor lies above the lysocline for calcite. The only anomaly is the low degree of saturation at the shelf break depth in the Canadian Basin seen in the sections of the AOS94 and JOIS 97 cruises, correlated with nutrient maxima and very low O₂ concentration, suggesting decomposition of organic matter. The insignificant variability in degree of saturation between the deep waters of the different basins in the Arctic Ocean indicates a very low sedimentation/remineralisation of organic soft matter.     

北极海冰密集度预报对大气强迫敏感性的个例研究

A regional Arctic configuration of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology general circulation model （MIT-gcm） is used as the coupled ice-ocean model for forecasting sea ice conditions in the Arctic Ocean at the Na-tional Marine Environmental Forecasting Center of China （NMEFC）, and the numerical weather prediction from the National Center for Environmental Prediction Global Forecast System （NCEP GFS） is used as the atmospheric forcing. To improve the sea ice forecasting, a recently developed Polar Weather Research and Forecasting model （Polar WRF） model prediction is also tested as the atmospheric forcing. Their forecasting performances are evaluated with two different satellite-derived sea ice concentration products as initializa-tions： （1） the Special Sensor Microwave Imager/Sounder （SSMIS） and （2） the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for EOS （AMSR-E）. Three synoptic cases, which represent the typical atmospheric circulations over the Arctic Ocean in summer 2010, are selected to carry out the Arctic sea ice numerical forecasting experiments. The evaluations suggest that the forecasts of sea ice concentrations using the Polar WRF atmo-spheric forcing show some improvements as compared with that of the NCEP GFS.     

A Coupled Ice-Ocean Model in the Pan-Arctic and North Atlantic Ocean: Simulation of Seasonal Cycles

A coupled ice-ocean model is configured for the pan-Arctic and northern North Atlantic Ocean with a 27.5 km resolution. The model is driven by the daily atmospheric climatology averaged from the 40-year NCEP reanalysis (1958–1997). The ocean model is the Princeton Ocean Model (POM), while the sea ice model is based on a full thermodynamical and dynamical model with plastic-viscous rheology. A sea ice model with multiple categories of thickness is utilized. A systematic model-data comparison was conducted. This model reasonably reproduces seasonal cycles of both the sea ice and the ocean. Climatological sea ice areas derived from historical data are used to validate the ice model performance. The simulated sea ice cover reaches a maximum of 14 × 10⁶ km² in winter and a minimum of 6.7 × 10⁶ km² in summer. This is close to the 95-year climatology with a maximum of 13.3 × 10⁶ km² in winter and a minimum of 7 × 10⁶ km² in summer. The simulated general circulation in the Arctic Ocean, the GIN (Greenland, Iceland, and Norwegian) seas, and northern North Atlantic Ocean are qualitatively consistent with historical mapping. It is found that the low winter salinity or freshwater in the Canada Basin tends to converge due to the strong anticyclonic atmospheric circulation that drives the anticyclonic ocean surface current, while low summer salinity or freshwater tends to spread inside the Arctic and exports out of the Arctic due to the relaxing wind field. It is also found that the warm, saline Atlantic Water has little seasonal variation, based on both simulation and observations. Seasonal cycles of temperature and salinity at several representative locations reveals regional features that characterize different water mass properties.     

A double-halocline structure in the Canada Basin of the Arctic Ocean

1IntroductionAs a particular hydrographic feature,the upperArctic Ocean is salinity-stratified.A year-round halo-cline exists between the fresher,colder mixed Layerand the saltier,warmer middle layer(the Atlantic Lay-er),which is important to the permanent sea ice coverin the Arctic Ocean for it insulates the ice pack fromthe heat in the Atlantic Layer throughout the Arctic O-cean(Maykut and Untersteiner,1971).Characterizedby its vertically uniform temperature near freezingpoint,the haloc…     

The vertical structure of the atmospheric boundary layer over the central Arctic Ocean

The tropopause height and the atmospheric boundarylayer （PBL） height as well as the variation of inversion layer above the floating ice surface are presented using GPS （global position system ） radiosonde sounding data and relevant data obtained by Chinas fourth arctic scientific expedition team over the central Arctic Ocean （86°-88°N, 144°-170°W） during the summer of 2010. The tropopause height is from 9.8 to 10.5 km, with a temperature range between -52.2 and -54.10C in the central Arctic Ocean. Two zones of maximum wind （over 12 m/s） are found in the wind profile, namely, low- and upper-level jets, located in the middle troposphere and the tropopause, respectively. The wind direction has a marked variation point in the two jets from the southeast to the southwest. The average PBL height determined by two methods is 341 and 453 m respectively. These two methods can both be used when the inversion layer is very low, but the results vary significantly when the inversion layer is very high. A significant logarithmic relationship exists between the PBL height and the inversion intensity, with a correlation coefficient of 0.66, indicating that the more intense the temperature inversion is, the lower the boundary layer will be. The observation results obviously differ from those of the third arctic expedition zone （800-85° N）. The PBL height and the inversion layer thickness are much lower than those at 870-88° N, but the inversion temperature is more intense, meaning a strong ice- atmosphere interaction in the sea near the North Pole. The PBL structure is related to the weather system and the sea ice concentration, which affects the observation station.     

全球热带海洋海表温度场异常对北极海冰的影响

本文利用1951?2021年哈德莱中心提供的海冰和海温最新资料以及美国国家海洋和大气管理局气候预报中心提供的NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,分析探讨了北极海冰70余年的长期变化特征,进而研究了其快速减少与热带海温场异常变化之间的联系,揭示了在全球热带海洋海温场变化与北极海冰之间存在密切联系的事实。结果表明,北极海冰异常变化最显著区域出现在格陵兰海、卡拉海和巴伦支海。热带不同海区对北极海冰的影响存在明显时滞时间和强度差异,热带大西洋的影响相比偏早,印度洋次之,太平洋偏晚。热带大西洋、印度洋和中东太平洋海温异常影响北极海冰的最佳时间分别是后者滞后26个月、30个月和34个月,全球热带海洋影响北极海冰的时滞时间为33个月。印度洋SST对北极海冰的影响程度最强,其次是太平洋,最弱是大西洋。全球热带海洋对北极海冰的影响过程中,热带东太平洋和印度洋起主导作用。当全球热带海洋SST出现正（负）距平时,北极海冰会出现偏少（多）的趋势,而AO、PNA、NAO对北极海冰变化起重要作用,是热带海洋与北极海冰相系数的重要“纽带”。而AO、PNA和NAO不仅受热带海洋SST的影响,同时也受太平洋年代际振荡PDO和大西洋多年代际AMO的影响,这一研究为未来北极海冰快速减少和全球气候变暖机理的深入研究提供理论支撑。