The reaction 3 cordierite = 2 garnet + 4 sillimanite + 5 quartz as a geological thermometer in the Opinicon Lake region,Ontario

In equilibrated metamorphic rocks containing coexisting garnet, cordierite, quartz and sillimanite, the exchange of iron and magnesium between cordierite and garnet offers a highly favourable geological thermometer and barometer, because this exchange reaction is insensitive to pressure. Thermodynamic analysis shows that this thermometer may be calibrated from knowledge of the breakdown reactions for iron and magnesian cordierite end members to garnet. The thermometer was experimentally calibrated using cordierites of intermediate composition. When applied to rocks showing petrographic evidence of equilibrium, and chemical evidence of reaction between garnet and cordierite, the thermometer yielded temperatures of 600–750:C, and pressures of 5.7–6.7 kilobars. Similar conditions are indicated by other literature data on cordierite-garnet gneisses, and are believed to represent hornblende granulite grade of metamorphism.     

Textural characteristics,distribution pattern and provenance of heavy minerals in glacial sediments of Schirmacher Oasis,east Antarctica

Heavy minerals of twenty sediment samples, belonging to polar ice sheet, lake, mainland area and shelf region of Schirmacher Oasis, east Antarctica, have been studied for their textural characteristics, abundance and provenance determination. The heavy crop is represented by zircon, tourmaline, rutile, garnet, hypersthene, hornblende, chlorite, enstatite, lawsonite, kyanite, sillimanite, zoisite, andalusite, spinel, topaz and opaques. The assemblage, in general, is dominated by hornblende-hypersthene-garnet assemblage, followed by kyanite-sillimanite-andalusite and zircontourmaline-rutile. The high concentration of specific minerals of metamorphic origin reveals high-grade metamorphic terrain as the primary source. The ZTR ratio is low showing low mineralogical maturity. An attempt has also been made to compare the trends of heavy minerals of various sub glacial regions with those of the average values of entire area.     

The role of synmetamorphic igneous rocks in the metamorphism and partial melting of metasediments,Northwest Adirondacks

Field and petrologic studies along the Adirondack Lowlands — Highlands boundary near Harrisville, NY, indicate that heat from the synmetamorphic intrusion of the Diana syenite complex (intrusion temperature of 1,050° C) played a major role in the local metamorphic thermal regime and was responsible for extensive partial melting of adjacent metasedimentary units (Major Paragneiss of Engel and Engel). Metamorphic temperatures inferred from two — feldspar and spinel — quartz assemblages decrease from 850–950° C along the Diana — metasediment contact to 650–700° C, 2–3 km away from the contact. Metamorphic pressures are 7±0.5 kb as determined from coexisting plagioclase — garnet — sillimanite — quartz, kyanite — sillimanite, and garnet — rutile — ilmenite — sillimanite — quartz (GRAIL). In the paragneiss, migmatites consisting of quartz — microcline perthite — sodic plagioclase leucosomes are generally concordant with the melanosome consisting of biotite — sillimanite — garnet — spinel — plagioclase ±corundum±cordierite. Qualitatively the amount of partial melt and occurrences of corundum-bearing assemblages decrease away from the Diana contact. Activity of H₂O inferred from coexisting biotite — sillimanite — quartz — garnet — K-feldspar ranges from 0.01 to 0.17 and is five to ten times lower in corundum-bearing rocks.Melting proceeded via vapor-absent reactions involving biotite in response to localized heating by synmetamorphic intrusion of magma. This unusually preserved, synmetamorphic contact aureole in a regional granulite terrane supports the concept that granulites owe their origin to magma intrusion and/or the ponding of magmas at the base of the crust.     

Heavy Mineral Placer Sand Deposits of Kontiagarh Area,Ganjam District,Orissa, India

The Kontiagarh placer deposit in the Ganjam district, Orissa, India extends in northeast direction having a width of 700–1000 m. A total of 187 samples were collected meterwise from 55 bore holes in a grid pattern from beach, frontal, intermediate and back dunes covering an area of approximately 1 km². Light minerals decrease in size from the beach to the back dunes, whereas the size distribution of heavy minerals in the beach and dunes is more or less uniform. The average heavy mineral content in the beach and dunes vary from 9.38% to 24.20%. The heavy minerals are ilmenite, garnet, sillimanite, rutile, monazite, and zircon with trace amounts of magnetite, hornblende, diopside, sphene, tourmaline, and epidote. Heavy minerals are mostly less than 350 µm in size, with a peak distribution in the range between 180 and 125 µm. Ilmenite shows exsolution intergrowth with hematite. Mineral chemistry of ilmenite, hematite, leucoxene, magnetite, monazite and sillimanite are examined by EPMA. Leucoxene is lower in Fe and higher in Ti, Al, Cr and V than ilmenite. The litho‐units of the Precambrian Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt, comprising primarily khondalite, charnockite, calc‐silicate granulite and gneiss, are the source of heavy minerals for this deposit. The bulk sample has 7.30% ilmenite, 5.24% sillimanite, 9.16% garnet, 0.18% rutile, 0.14% monazite, 0.06% zircon and 0.52% other heavy minerals. The deposit has good potential for economic exploitation of ilmenite, rutile, sillimanite, monazite, zircon and garnet.     

Dehydration-melting of amphibolite at 10 kbar: the effects of temperature and time

We have simulated the dehydration-melting of a natural, low-K, calcic amphibolite (67.4% hornblende, 32.5% anorthite) in piston-cylinder experiments at 10 kbar and 750–1000°C, for 1–9 days. The solidus temperature is lower than 750°C; garnet appears at 850°C. The overall reaction is: Hb+PL+Cpx+Al-Hb+Ca-Hb+Ga+Opx. Three stages of reaction are: (1) melting dominated by the growth of clinopyroxene and garnet, with little change in composition of liquid or garnet, (2) a reversal of this reaction between 875°C and 900°C, with decreases in the amounts of liquid and garnet, and (3) a large increase in liquid along with the loss of hornblende and decrease of plagioclase while clinopyroxene and garnet increase. Garnet is enriched in pyrope and zoned from Fe-cores to Mg-edges (range 3 mol % pyrope); liquid composition is enriched first in An (to 950°C) and then in Ab. The liquids are more calcic and aluminous than natural tonalites, which is attributed to the plagioclase composition (An₉₀). The formation of peraluminous liquid from the metaluminous amphibolite is caused by anorthite — not H₂O-saturated conditions. The results are consistent with an amphibolite phase diagram with relatively high solidus temperatures in the garnet-absent field (900–1000°C), but with a solidus backbend at 7–9 kbar, coincident with the garnet-in boundary. Hornblende breakdown due to garnet formation in a closed system must make H₂O available for H₂O-undersaturated melting right down to the H₂O-saturated solidus, below 700°C, which defines a large low-temperature PT area where hydrous granitoid melts can be generated with residual garnet and hornblende.     

Spinel–quartz high temperature paragenesis in Al–Fe granulites from the Ihouhaouene area (NW Hoggar, Algeria)

The spinel–quartz-bearing Al–Fe granulites from Ihouhaouene (In Ouzzal, West Hoggar) have a migmatitic appearance with quartzo-feldspathic layers intercalated with restitic layers. These granulites are characterized by a hercynitic spinel–quartz assemblage typical of high grade terranes. The stability of the spinel–quartz assemblage is attributed to an elevation of temperature (from 800 to >1100 °C) at high pressures (10–11 kbar), followed by an isothermal decompression from 9 to 5 kbar, an evolution typical of the In Ouzzal clockwise P–T path. The Al–Fe granulites’ history can be subdivided into different successive crystallisation stages. During the first stage, the spinel–quartz assemblage formed, probably following a prograde event that also produced partial melting. During a second stage, the primary spinel–garnet–sillimanite–quartz paragenesis broke-down to give rise to the secondary assemblage. The metamorphic evolution and phase relations during this stage are shown in P–T–X pseudosections calculated for the simple FMASH system. These pseudosections show that the orthopyroxene–cordierite–spinel symplectite appeared during a high temperature decompression, as a product of destabilisation of garnet in sillimanite-free microdomains with high X_Mg values. At the same time, the spinel–quartz association broke-down into cordierite in Fe-rich microdomains. Average pressure and temperature estimates for the orthopyroxene–spinel–garnet–cordierite–quartz association are close to the thermal peak of metamorphism (1000 ± 116 °C at 6.3 ± 0.5 kbar). With decreasing temperatures garnet–sillimanite corona developed from the breakdown of the primary spinel–quartz assemblage in the Fe-rich microdomains, whereas cordierite–spinel formed at the expense of primary sillimanite and garnet in the Mg-rich microdomains.     

Ca distribution between almandine-rich garnet and plagioclase in pelitic and psammitic schists from the metamorphic basement of North-Eastern Sardinia

Garnet and plagioclase pairs from fourteen selected samples, from garnet to sillimanite zones, collected along a NS traverse throughout the metamorphic basement of NE Sardinia, have been analyzed by microprobe.Beyond the garnet isograd, plagioclase has albitic composition and the garnet (a Ca-rich almandine) shows Ca/ Ca+Mg+Fe ratios of about 0.35–0.30, fairly constant from core to rim.Towards the North, still in the garnet zone, when on the large albitic core of plagioclase a thin and discontinuous oligoclasic rim (An₂₂–An₁₈) formed, we observe in the garnet edge an abrupt decrease of the Ca/Ca+Mg+Fe ratio (0.27–0.16).In the staurolite and sillimanite zones garnet does not show significant Ca-zoning and it is characterized by low Ca content (Ca/Ca+Mg+Fe<0.1); the coexisting plagioclase has oligoclasic (An₁₆–An₂₇) composition.The chemical data and the microstructural evidence on growth time indicate that the garnet and plagioclase had a strong mutual interference in determining the relative Ca distribution.The most relevant reactions are discussed and, in particular, the antipathetical Ca-zoning, recorded by garnet and plagioclase in the garnet zone, is considered as the evidence of temperature increase during growth of the two minerals. It is also suggested that the sharp variation of Ca content at the garnet edge was controlled by the discontinuous nature of plagioclase solid solution in the peristeritic range.The order of appearance of garnet and oligoclase in the basement of NE Sardinia is also discussed in comparison with other well known metamorphic sequence (Vermont, New Zealand and Dalradian). It is concluded that the different order of appearance is controlled other than the different nature of the calcic phases in the lower grade zones also by the in the fluid phase.     

P–T–t evolution of garnet amphibolites in the Wutai–Hengshan area,North China Craton: insights from phase equilibria and geochronology

Garnet amphibolites can provide valuable insights into geological processes of orogenic belts, but their metamorphic evolution is still poorly constrained. Garnet amphibolites from the Wutai–Hengshan area of the North China Craton mainly consist of garnet, hornblende, plagioclase, quartz, rutile and ilmenite, with or without titanite and epidote. Four samples selected in a south–north profile were studied by the pseudosection approach in order to elucidate the characteristics of their metamorphic evolution, and to better reveal the northwards prograde change in P–T conditions as established previously. For the sample from the lower Wutai Subgroup, garnet exhibits obvious two‐substage growth zoning characteristic of pyrope (X_py) increasing but grossular (X_gr) decreasing outwards in the core, and both X_py and X_gr increasing outwards in the rim. Phase modelling using thermocalc suggests that the garnet cores were formed by chlorite breakdown over 7–9 kbar at 530–600 °C, and rims grew from hornblende and epidote breakdown over 9.5–11.5 kbar at 600–670 °C. The isopleths of the minimum An in plagioclase and maximum X_py in garnet were used to constrain the peak P–T conditions of ~11.5 kbar/670 °C. The modelled peak assemblage garnet + hornblende + epidote+ plagioclase + rutile + quartz matches well the observed one. Plagioclase–hornblende coronae around garnet indicate post‐peak decompression and fluid ingress. For the samples from the south Hengshan Complex, the garnet zoning weaken gradually, reflecting modifications during decompression of the rocks. Using the same approach, the rocks are inferred to have suprasolidus peak conditions, increasing northwards from 11.5 kbar/745 °C, 12.5 kbar/780 °C to 13 kbar/800 °C. Their modelled peak assemblages involve diopside, garnet, hornblende, plagioclase, rutile and quartz, yet diopside is not observed petrographically. The post‐peak decompression is characterized by diopside + garnet + quartz + melt = hornblende + plagioclase, causing the diopside consumption and garnet compositions to be largely modified. Thus, the pesudosection approach is expected to provide better pressure results than conventional thermobarometry, because the later approach cannot be applied with confidence to rocks with multi‐generation assemblages. U–Pb dating of zircon in the Wutai sample records a protolith age of c. 2.50 Ga, and a metamorphic age of c. 1.95 Ga, while zircon in the Hengshan samples records metamorphic ages of c. 1.92 Ga. The c. 1.95 Ga is interpreted to represent the pre‐peak or peak metamorphic stages, and the ages of c. 1.92 Ga are assigned to represent the cooling stages. All rocks in the Wutai–Hengshan area share similar clockwise P–T morphologies. They may represent metamorphic products at different crustal depths in one orogenic event, which included a main thickening stage at c. 1.95 Ga followed by a prolonged uplift and cooling after 1.92 Ga.     

The partial equilibration of garnet porphyroblasts in pelitic schists and its control on prograde metamorphism,Glen Roy,Scotland

Garnet porphyroblasts in sillimanite‐bearing pelitic schists contain complex textural and compositional zoning, with considerable variation both within and between adjacent samples. The sillimanite‐bearing schists locally occur in regional Barrovian garnet zone assemblages and are indicative of a persistent lack of equilibrium during prograde metamorphism. Garnet in these Dalradian rocks from the Scottish Highlands preserves evidence of a range of metamorphic responses including initial growth and patchy coupled dissolution–reprecipitation followed by partial dissolution. Individual porphyroblasts each have a unique and variable response to prograde metamorphism and garnet with mainly flat compositional profiles co‐exists with those containing largely unmodified characteristic bell‐shaped Mn profiles. This highlights the need for caution in applying traditional interpretations of effective volume diffusion eliminating compositional variation. Cloudy garnet with abundant fluid inclusions is produced during incomplete modification of the initial porphyroblasts and these porous garnet are then particularly prone to partial replacement in sillimanite‐producing reactions. The modification of garnet via a dissolution–reprecipitation process releases Ca into the effective whole‐rock composition, displacing the pressure–temperature positions of subsequent isograd reactions. This represents the first report of internal metasomatism controlling reaction pathways. The behaviour of garnet highlights the importance of kinetic factors, especially deformation and fluids, in controlling reaction progress and how the resulting variability influences subsequent prograde history. The lack of a consistent metamorphic response, within and between adjacent schists, suggests that on both local and regional scales these rocks have largely not equilibrated at peak metamorphic conditions.     

The Garnet+Hornblende Isograd in Calcic Schists from an Andalusite-Type Regional Metamorphic Terrain, Panamint Mountains, California

Calcic schists in the andalusite-type regional metamorphic terrainin the Panamint Mountains, California, contain the low-varianceassemblage quartz+epidote+muscovite+biotite+calcic amphibole+chlorite+plagioclase+spheneat low grade. Near the sillimanite isograd, chlorite in thisassemblage is replaced by garnet. The low variance in many calcicschists allows the determination of the nature of the reactionthat resulted in the coexistence of garnet+hornblende. A graphicalanalysis of the mineral assemblages shows that the reactioncan not be of the form biotite+epidote+chlorite+plagioclase+quartz=garnet+hornblende+muscovite+sphene+H₂Obecause garnet+chlorite never coexisted during metamorphismand the chlorite-bearing and garnet-bearing phase volumes donot overlap. The compositions of the minerals show that withincreasing grade amphibole changed from actinolite to pargasitichornblende with no apparent miscibility gap, the partitioningof Fe and Mg between chlorite and hornblende changed from K_D(Mg/Fe, chl&amp) < 1 to K_D > 1, the partitioning betweenbiotite and hornblende changed from K_D (Mg/Fe, bio/amp) <1 in chlorite-zone samples to K_D > 1 in garnet + hornblende-zonesamples, and the transition to the garnet-bearing assemblageoccurred when the composition of plagioclase was between An₅₅and An₈₀. Both the graphical analysis and an analytical analysisof the compositions of the minerals using simplified componentsderived from the natural mineral compositions indicate thatat the garnet+hornblende isograd the composition of hornblendewas colinear with that of plagioclase and biotite, as projectedfrom quartz, epidote, muscovite, and H₂O. During progressivemetamorphism, chlorite+biotite+epidote+quartz continuously brokedown to form hornblende+muscovite+sphene until the degeneracywas reached. At that point, tie lines from hornblende couldextend to garnet without allowing garnet to coexist with chlorite.Thus, the garnet+hornblende isograd was established throughcontinuous reactions within the chlorite-grade assemblage ratherthan through a discontinuous reaction. In this type of isograd,the low-grade diagnostic assemblage occurs only in Mg-rich rocks;whereas the high-grade assemblage occurs only in Fe-rich rocks.This relation accounts for the restricted occurrence of garnet+hornblendeassemblage in low-pressure terrains. In Barrovian terrains,garnet+chlorite commonly occurs, and the first appearana ofgarnet+hornblende can simply result from the continuous shiftof the garnet+chlorite tie line to Mg-rich compositions.     

Biotite and garnet compositional variation and mineral equilibria in Grenville gneisses of the Otter Lake area, Quebec

Garnet-biotite gneisses, some of which contain sillimanite or hornblende, are widespread within the Otter Lake terrain, a portion of the Grenville Province of the Canadian Shield. The metamorphic grade is upper amphibolite to, locally, lower granulite facies. The atomic ratio Fe²⁺/(Fe²⁺+ Fe³⁺) in biotite ranges from 0.79 to 0.89 (ferrous iron determinations in 10 highly pure separates), with a mean of 0.86. Mg and Fe²⁺ atoms occupy 67–78% of the octahedral sites, the remainder are occupied by Fe³⁺, Ti, and Al, and some are vacant. Mg/(Mg + Fe²⁺), denoted X, in the analysed samples ranges from 0.32 to 0.65. Garnet contains 1–24% grossular, 1–12% spessartine and X ranges from 0.07 to 0.34. Compositional variation in biotite and garnet is examined in relation to three mineral equilibria: (I) biotite + sillimanite + quartz = garnet + K-feldspar + H₂O; (II) pyrope + annite = almandine + phlogopite; (III) anorthite = grossular + sillimanite + quartz. Measurements of X (biotite) and X (garnet) are used to construct an illustrative model for equilibrium (I) which relates the observed variation in X to a temperature range of 70°C or a range in H₂O activity of 0.6; the latter interpretation is preferred. In sillimanite-free gneisses, the distribution of Mg and Fe²⁺ between garnet (low in Ca and Mn) and biotite is adequately described by a distribution coefficient (KD) of 4.1 (equilibrium II). The observed increase in the distribution coefficient with increasing Ca in garnet is ln K_D= 1.3 + 2.5 × 10^?2 [Ca] where [Ca] = 100 Ca/(Mg + Fe²⁺+ Mn + Ca). The distribution coefficient is apparently unaffected by the presence of up to 12% spessartine in garnet. In several specimens of garnet-sillimanite-plagioclase gneiss, the Ca contents of garnet and of plagioclase increase in unison, as required by equilibrium (III). The mean pressure calculated from these data (n= 17) is 5.9 kbar, and the 95% confidence limits are ±0.5 kbar.     

Proterozoic anticlockwise P–T path of the Lewisian Complex of South Harris, Outer Hebrides, NW Scotland

The Leverburgh Belt and South Harris Igneous Complex in South Harris (northwest Scotland) experienced high-pressure granulite facies metamorphism during the Palaeoproterozoic. The metamorphic history has been determined from the following mineral textures and compositions observed in samples of pelitic, quartzofeldspathic and mafic gneisses, especially in pelitic gneisses from the Leverburgh Belt: (1) some coarse-grained garnet in the pelitic gneiss includes biotite and quartz in the inner core, sillimanite in the outer core, and is overgrown by kyanite at the rims; (2) garnet in the pelitic gneiss shows a progressive increase in grossular content from outer core to rims; (3) the Al^VI/Al^IV ratio of clinopyroxene from mafic gneiss increases from core to rim; (4) retrograde reaction coronas of cordierite and hercynite+cordierite are formed between garnet and kyanite, and orthopyroxene+cordierite and orthopyroxene+plagioclase reaction coronas develop between garnet and quartz; (5) a P–T path is deduced from inclusion assemblages in garnet and from staurolite breakdown reactions to produce garnet+sillimanite and garnet+sillimanite+hercynite with increasing temperature; and (6) in sheared and foliated rocks, hydrous minerals such as biotite, muscovite and hornblende form a foliation, modifying pre-existing textures. The inferred metamorphic history of the Leverburgh Belt is divided into four stages, as follows: (M1) prograde metamorphism with increasing temperature; (M2) prograde metamorphism with increasing pressure; (M3) retrograde decompressional metamorphism with decreasing pressure and temperature; and (M4) retrograde metamorphism accompanied by shearing. Peak P–T conditions of the M2 stage are 800±30 °C, 13–14 kbar. Pressure increasing from M1 to M2 suggests thrusting of continental crust over the South Harris belt during continent–continent collision. The inferred P–T path and tectonic history of the South Harris belt are different from those of the Lewisian of the mainland.     

Constraining the prograde and retrograde P-T paths of granulites using decomposition of initially zoned garnets: an example from the Central Indian Tectonic Zone

The present study from the Sausar Mobile Belt (SMB) in the southern part of the Central Indian Tectonic zone (CITZ) demonstrates how microdomainal compositional variation of a single garnet porphyroblast in a metapelite granulite sample records the different segments of a near complete P-T path of metamorphic evolution. The microdomainal variation is ascribed to the preservation of growth zoning and heterogeneous distribution of diverse inclusion mineral assemblages. Subsequent mineral reactions under changing P/T conditions were controlled by this compositional heterogeneity. Four stages of metamorphic evolution have been deciphered. An early prograde stage (M_o) is implied by the rare presence of staurolite-biotite-quartz and in places of kyanite inclusion assemblages in other metapelite samples, together with the growth zoning preserved in garnet. The peak metamorphism (M₁) at ~9.5 kbar, ~850 °C is consistent with the biotite dehydration melting that produced garnet-K-feldspar and granitic leucosomes. This was followed by near isothermal decompression (M₂) at ~6 kbar, ~825 °C, during which different garnet segments behaved as separate microscale bulk compositions and decomposed both internally and externally to produce different retrograde mineral assemblages. In the quartz-bearing domain of almandine-rich and grossular-rich garnet core, grossular components in garnet reacted with included sillimanite and quartz to produce coronal plagioclase (X_An=0.90). By contrast, grossular-rich garnet in quartz-absent domain reacted with included sillimanite to produce layered spinel_ss {X_Mg (Mg/Mg+Fe²⁺) = 0.23–0.26}, X_Al (Al/Al+Fe³⁺)=0.71–0.81}-plagioclase (X_An=0.91)-cordierite {X_Mg (Mg/Mg+Fe²⁺) = 0.80–0.83} coronas both in the core and inner rim region of garnet. During post-decompression cooling, reactions occurred at about 600 °C (M₃), whereby quartz-bearing, sillimanite-absent microdomains of pyrope-rich, grossular-poor garnet outer rim decomposed to form relatively magnesian assemblages of cordierite-anthophyllite and cordierite-biotite-quartz. M₂ spinel_ss decomposed to polyphase domains of spinel-magnetite±högbomite at this stage. Collating the textural and geothermobarometric results, a clockwise P-T path has been deduced. The deduced P-T loop is consistent with a model of crustal thickening due to continental collision, followed by rapid vertical thinning, which appears to be the general feature of the Sausar Mobile Belt. Using model calculations of the preserved growth and diffusion zoning in garnet, we demonstrate rather short-lived nature of this collision orogeny (in the order of 40–60 Ma).Editorial responsibility: W. Schreyer     

Transition of metamorphic series from the Kyanite- to andalusite-types in the Altai orogen, Xinjiang, China: Evidence from petrography and calculated KMnFMASH and KFMASH phase relations

Metamorphic zones in the Chinese Altai orogen have previously been separated into the kyanite- and andalusite-types, the andalusite-type being spatially more extensive. The kyanite-type involves a zonal sequence of biotite, garnet, staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite and, locally, garnet–cordierite zones. The andalusite-type zonal sequence is similar: it includes biotite, garnet and staurolite zones at lower-T conditions and sillimanite and garnet–cordierite zones at higher-T conditions, but additionally contains staurolite–andalusite and andalusite–sillimanite zones at intermediate-T conditions. As relic kyanite-bearing assemblages commonly persist in the staurolite–andalusite, andalusite–sillimanite and sillimanite zones, it is not clear that the distinction is valid. On the basis of a reevaluation of phase relations modelled in KMnFMASH and KFMASH pseudosections, kyanite and andalusite-bearing rocks of the Chinese Altai orogen record, respectively, the typical burial and exhumation history of the terrane. Mineral assemblages distributed through the various zones reflect a mix of portions of the ambient P–T array and the effects of evolving P–T conditions. The comparatively low-T biotite, garnet and staurolite zones mostly preserve kyanite-type peak assemblages that only experienced minor changes during exhumation. Rocks in the comparatively high-T sillimanite and garnet–cordierite zones are dominated by mineral assemblages of a transitional sillimanite type, having formed by the extensive modification of earlier higher pressure assemblages during exhumation. Only rocks in the intermediate-T kyanite and probably some lower sillimanite zones were clearly recrystallized by late stage andalusite metamorphism, producing the staurolite–andalusite and andalusite–sillimanite zones. This andalusite metamorphism could not reach an equilibrium state because of limited fluid availability.     

Thermal evolution of the Tseel terrane,SW Mongolia and its relation to granitoid intrusions in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt

The timing and thermal effects of granitoid intrusions into accreted sedimentary rocks are important for understanding the growth process of continental crust. In this study, the petrology and geochronology of pelitic gneisses in the Tseel area of the Tseel terrane, SW Mongolia, are examined to understand the relationship between igneous activity and metamorphism during crustal evolution in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB). Four mineral zones are recognized on the basis of progressive changes in the mineral assemblages in the pelitic gneisses, namely: the garnet, staurolite, sillimanite and cordierite zones. The gneisses with high metamorphic grades (i.e. sillimanite and cordierite zones) occur in the central part of the Tseel area, where granitoids are abundant. To the north and south of these granitoids, the metamorphic grade shows a gradual decrease. The composition of garnet in the pelitic gneisses varies systematically across the mineral zones, from grossular‐rich garnet in the garnet zone to zoned garnet with grossular‐rich cores and pyrope‐rich rims in the staurolite zone, and pyrope‐rich garnet in the sillimanite and cordierite zones. Thermobarometric analyses of individual garnet crystals reveal two main stages of metamorphism: (i) a high‐P and low‐T stage (as recorded by garnet in the garnet zone and garnet cores in the staurolite zone) at 520–580 °C and 4.5–7 kbar in the kyanite stability field and (ii) a low‐P and high‐T stage (garnet rims in the staurolite zone and garnet in the sillimanite and cordierite zones) at 570–680 °C and 3.0–6.0 kbar in the sillimanite stability field. The earlier high‐P metamorphism resulted in the growth of kyanite in quartz veins within the staurolite and sillimanite zones. The U–Pb zircon ages of pelitic gneisses and granitoids reveal that (i) the protolith (igneous) age of the pelitic gneisses is c. 510 Ma; (ii) the low‐P and high‐T metamorphism occurred at 377 ± 30 Ma; and (iii) this metamorphic stage was coeval with granitoid intrusion at 385 ± 7 Ma. The age of the earlier low‐T and high‐P metamorphism is not clearly recorded in the zircon, but probably corresponds to small age peaks at 450–400 Ma. The low‐P and high‐T metamorphism continued for c. 100 Ma, which is longer than the active period of a single granitoid body. These findings indicate that an elevation of geotherm and a transition from high‐P and low‐T to low‐P and high‐T metamorphism occurred, associated with continuous emplacement of several granitoids, during the crustal evolution in the Devonian CAOB.     

Petrology of the Hara Lake paragneisses,northeastern Saskatchewan,Canada

Precambrian aluminous paragneisses in the Hara Lake area of northeastern Saskatchewan are characterized by the stable association of cordierite and garnet with either sillimanite or biotite; alkali feldspar is an important mineral of this association. The aluminous gneisses are interlayered with pyroxene-plagioclase gneisses that contain orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, hornblende, and biotite. The gneisses in the study area and in the adjacent Charcoal Lake area were metamorphosed under conditions of the granulite facies. The petrologic evidence is consistent with a first metamorphic event during which the association sillimanite-biotite was stable, followed by a second event during which cordierite-garnet was stable. Consideration of mineral assemblages and mineral chemistries of the aluminous gneisses in terms of experimentally established or thermodynamically derived reactions suggests that recrystallization from the sillimanite-biotite association to cordierite-garnet took place at 680 °–750 °C and 3.2–4.4 kb.     

Sapphirine bearing granulites from the Sipiwesk Lake area of the late Archean Pikwitonei granulite terrain,Manitoba, Canada

Sapphirine occurs in the orthopyroxene-cordierite and feldspar-sillimanite granulites in the Sipiwesk Lake area of the Pikwitonei granulite terrain, Manitoba (97°40W, 55°05N). The orthopyroxene-cordierite granulites have extremely high Al₂O₃ (24.5 wt%) and MgO (24.6 wt%) contents and contain sapphirine (up to 69.2 wt% Al₂O₃), aluminous orthopyroxene (up to 8.93 wt% Al₂O₃), cordierite, spinel, phlogopite, and corundum. Sapphirine forms coronas mantling spinel and corundum. Corona sapphirine is zoned and its composition varies through the substitution (Mg, Fe, Mn) Si=2 Al as a function of the phases with which it is in contact. Textural and chemical relationships of sapphirine with coexisting phases indicate that spinel + cordierite reacted to form orthopyroxene + sapphirine under conditions of increasing pressure. Moreover, decreasing core to rim variation of Al₂O₃ in orthopyroxene porphyroblasts suggests decreasing temperature during sapphirine formation. On the basis of experimentally determined P-T stability of the assemblage enstatite + sapphirine + cordierite, and the Al content of hypothetical Fe²⁺-free orthopyroxene associated with sapphirine and cordierite, metamorphic temperatures and pressures are estimated to be 860–890° C and 3.0–11.2 kbar.In the feldspar-sillimanite granulites, sapphirine occurs as a relict phase mantled by sillimanite and/or by successive coronas of sillimanite and garnet. These textural relations suggest the reaction sapphirine + garnet + quartz = orthopyroxene + sillimanite with decreasing temperature. Compositions of minerals in the assemblage garnet-orthopyroxene-sillimanite-plagioclase-quartz, indicate metamorphic P-T conditions of 780–880° C and 9±1 kb.The metamorphic conditions estimated in this study suggest that the sapphirine bearing granulites in the Sipiwesk Lake area represent Archean lower crustal rocks. Their formation might be related to the crustal thickening processes in this area as suggested by Hubregtse (1980) and Weber (1983).     

Crustal make-up of the northern Andes: evidence based on deep crustal xenolith suites, Mercaderes, SW Colombia

Samples of the deep crust and upper mantle in the Northern Andes occur as abundant xenoliths in the Granatífera Tuff, a late Cenozoic vent in the Mercaderes area of SW Colombia. The lower crustal assemblage includes granulites, hornblendites, pyribolites, pyroxenites and gneisses; mafic rocks predominate, but felsic material is also common. P–T conditions for the pyribolite assemblages (i.e. Hbl+Fs/Scp+Grt+Cpx+Qtz±Bt), which are the best constrained, are 720–850 °C and 10–14 kbar, consistent with a deep-to-lower crustal origin. A notable feature of this xenolith suite is that it is dominated by hornblende. However, mineral reactions within the suite show that there is a transition from amphibolite to granulite facies, and there is a probable restite–melt relationship represented within the suite. However, the latter appears to be dominated by hornblende and garnet.The mafic rocks mostly lack the high Cr and Ni that would be expected of cumulates. Neither do they possess the positive Sr and Eu anomalies that would be consistent with resite or cumulate models for the lower crust. They bear greatest similarity to oceanic basalts (s.l.). The Rb contents of the xenoliths, whether mafic or silicic, are very low, and the more silicic members of the suite tend to have small positive Sr and Eu anomalies, which are transitional to adakitic compositions. The Sr isotopic compositions of the xenoliths lie between 0.704 and 0.705; however, the Nd isotopic compositions are much more variable, indicating considerable long-term heterogeneity. Few of the xenoliths can be compositionally recognised as metasedimentary; however, a sedimentary component is evident in the Pb isotopic compositions. Within these constraints, our favoured model is a deep crust formed by basaltic components (subduction–accretion?), and minor sediment, which is subject to an increase in thermal gradient to produce the granulites, any melting being dominated by hornblende-out reactions involving garnet. However, there is no evidence of any pervasive crustal melting, leading to the conclusion that the voluminous Andean magmatism arises from the mantle wedge.     

A review of Antarctic granulite-facies rocks

Precambrian granulite-facies rocks occur in significant proportion in the East Antarctic Precambrian shield. Ages of metamorphic and deformational events range from 2500 m.y. to about 500 m.y., but some rocks are much older, notably the approximately 3500 m.y. ages for crust formation in Enderby Land. Mineral assemblages over most of the area are typical of the hornblende granulite facies, and sparse temperature pressure estimates indicate metamorphism at 700–800°C and 5–8 kbar at reduced water pressures. A terrane of exceptional interest is the Napier complex of Enderby Land, where sapphirine-quartz ± garnet, sillimanite-orthopyroxene, osumilite, and inverted pigeonite are associated with pyroxene-granulite-facies rocks. Metamorphic conditions are estimated to have reached 900°–980°C, 7–9 kbar, and p_H2O < 0.5 kbar. Metamorphism in the Napier complex, and possibly in other parts of East Antarctica, may be associated with large loss of fluid rather than massive influx of CO₂.     

Seismic velocities of granulite-facies xenoliths from Central Ireland: Implications for lower crustal composition and anisotropy

V_p and V_s values have been measured experimentally and calculated for granulite-facies lower crustal xenoliths from central Ireland close to the Caledonian Iapetus suture zone. The xenoliths are predominantly foliated and lineated metapelitic (garnet–sillimanite–K-feldspar) granulites. Their metapelitic composition is unusual compared with the mostly mafic composition of lower crustal xenoliths world-wide. Based on thermobarometry, the metapelitic xenoliths were entrained from depths of c. 20–25 ± 3.5 km and rare mafic granulites from depths of 31–33 ± 3.4 km. The xenoliths were emplaced during Lower Carboniferous volcanism and are considered to represent samples of the present day lower crust.V_p values for the metapelitic granulites range between 6.26 and 7.99 km s^{− 1} with a mean value of 7.09 ± 0.4 km s^{− 1}. Psammite and granitic orthogneiss samples have calculated V_p values of 6.51 and 6.23 km s^{− 1}, respectively. V_s values for the metapelites are between 3.86 and 4.34 km s^{− 1}, with a mean value of 4.1 ± 0.15 km s^{− 1}. The psammite and orthogneiss have calculated V_s values of 3.95 and 3.97 km s^{− 1}, respectively.The measured seismic velocities correlate with density and with modal mineralogy, especially the high content of sillimanite and garnet. V_p anisotropy is between 0.15% and 13.97%, and a clear compositional control is evident, mainly in relation to sillimanite abundance. Overall V_s anisotropy ranges from 1% to 11%. Poisson's ratio (σ) lies between 0.25 and 0.35 for the metapelitic granulites, mainly reflecting a high V_p value due to abundant sillimanite in the sample with the highest σ. Anisotropy is probably a function of deformation associated with the closure of the Iapetus ocean in the Silurian as well as later extension in the Devonian. The orientation of the bulk strain ellipsoid in the lower crust is difficult to constrain, but lineation is likely to be NE–SW, given the strike-slip nature of the late Caledonian and subsequent Acadian deformation.When corrected for present-day lower crustal temperature, the experimentally determined V_p values correspond well with velocities from the ICSSP, COOLE I and VARNET seismic refraction lines. Near the xenolith localities, the COOLE I line displays two lower crustal layers with in situ V_p values of 6.85–6.9 and 6.9–8.0 km s^{− 1}, respectively. The upper (lower velocity) layer corresponds well with the metapelitic granulite xenoliths while the lower (higher velocity) layer matches that of the basic granulite xenoliths, though their metamorphic pressures suggest derivation from depths corresponding to the present-day upper mantle.