Soil moisture variation and plant water stress at the Hartheim Scots pine plantation

Summary During two measurement campaigns in 1992 (the Hartheim Experiment HartX- and an additional experiment in autumn), measurements of soil moisture were carried out in aPinus sylvestris stand at Hartheim on the Oberrhein. Several methods were used to determine soil water status. They were compared in terms of suitability for estimating stand evapotranspiration (ET) via soil water depletion. Measurements of tree water potential suggested that conductance of the trees was affected by soil water depletion during the period of the HartX campaign in spring 1992. We interpret the observations to indicate a lesser influence of soil water availability on tree transpiration during the autumn experiment.Eddy correlation and xylem sapflow measurements provided reference ET values with which to compare the stand ET calculations based on soil moisture measurements. Profile measurements of soil moisture showed that particularly in springtime when the lower soil layers are saturated with water, the water transport from depths below the major rooting zone is a very important factor affecting evaluation of stand ET. Decreases in soil water storage may be determined best with permanently installed soil moisture sensors such as used in tensiometric or TDR measurements that provide high resolution of changes over time.With 8 Figures     

The HartX-synthesis: An experimental approach to water and carbon exchange of a Scots pine plantation

Summary In May 1992 during the interdisciplinary measurement campaign HartX (Hartheim eXperiment), several independent estimates of stand water vapor flux were compared at a 12-m high Scots pine (Pinus silvestris) plantation on a flat fluvial terrace of the Rhine close to Freiburg, Germany. Weather during the HartX period was characterized by ten consecutive clear days with exceptionally high input of available energy for this time of year and with a slowly shifting diurnal pattern in atmospheric variables like vapor pressure deficit. Methods utilized to quantify components of stand water flux included porometry measurements on understory graminoid leaves and on pine needles and three different techniques for determining individual tree xylem sap flow. Micrometeorological methods included eddy covariance and eddy covariance energy balance techniques with six independent systems on two towers separated by 40 m. Additionally, Bowen ratio energy balance estimates of water flux were conducted and measurements of the gradients in water vapor, CO₂, and trace gases within and above the stand were carried out with an additional, portable 30 m high telescoping mast.Biologically-based estimates of overstory transpiration were obtained by up-scaling tree sap flow rates to stand level via cumulative sapwood area. Tree transpiration contributed between 2.2 and 2.6 mm/day to ET for a tree leaf area index (LAI) of 2.8. The pine stand had an understory dominated by sedge and grass species with overall average LAI of 1.5. Mechanistic canopy gas exchange models that quantify both water vapor and CO₂ exchange were applied to both understory and tree needle ecosystem compartments. Thus, the transpiration by graminoid species was estimated at approximately 20% of total stand ET. The modelled estimates for understory contribution to stand water flux compared well with micrometeorologically-based determinations. Maximum carbon gain was estimated from the canopy models at approximately 425 mmol/(m²day) for the tree needles and at 100 mmol/(m²day) for the understory. Carbon gain was suggested by the modelling analysis to remain relatively constant during the HartX period, while water use efficiency in carbon fixation increased with decreasing vapor pressure deficit. Biologically- and micrometeorologically-based estimates of stand water flux showed good general agreement with variation of up to 20% that reflects both errors due to the inherent assumptions associated with different methods as well as natural spatial variability in fluxes. The various methods support a reliable estimate of average ET from this homogeneous canopy during HartX of about 2.6 mm/day (a maximum of about 3.1 mm/day) with an insignificant decreasing trend in correlation with decreasing vapor pressure deficit and possibly soil moisture.Findings during HartX were embedded in local scale heterogeneity with greater roughness over the forest and much higher ET over the surrounding agricultural fields which results in weak but clearly existant circulation patterns. A variety of measurements were continued after the HartX campaign. They allow us to extend our findings for six months with changing environmental conditions, including shortage of soil moisture. Hydrological estimates of soil water extractions and micrometeorological estimates of ET by the one-propeller eddy covariance (OPEC) system were in very good agreement, supporting the use of this robust eddy covariance energy balance technique for long-term monitoring.With 5 Figures     

Applying single and two layer canopy models to derive conductances of a Scots pine plantation from micrometeorological measurements

Summary A single layer (Penman-Monteith) and a two layer (modified Shuttleworth-Wallace) evapotranspiration (ET) model are used alternatively to derive conductances related to the dominant fluxes of water vapor from a semi-closed Scots pine plantation. The derivations are based on micrometeorological measurements of above canopy energy flux densities and a simple resistance network. For a period of consecutive fine weather days, below canopy net radiation and below canopy ET were about 20 percent of the corresponding above canopy values. Resulting conductances for latent heat flux agreed well with porometric measurements of pines and understory scaled to canopy level. The shift from single to two layer modelling reduced the canopy conductance to pine conductance by the fraction of understory ET.However, characteristics of porometer results and micrometeorologically derived conductances were quite different: The porometer estimates of conductance were highly variable due to stomatal response to local environmental conditions or natural variability within the tree canopy and vegetation patches which characterized the forest understory. Micrometeorologically derived conductances integrate spatially resulting in relatively smooth and repetitive daily patterns that lack the information of small scale variability. This is seen as a favorable feature of micrometeorological derived conductances when used for the parameterization of atmospheric models for climate research as long as small scale bio-diversity is irrelevant.With 5 Figures     

Turbulence measurements above a pine forest

Eddy fluxes of momentum, sensible and latent heat, and turbulence spectra measured over the Thetford Forest during 10 days in the Spring of 1973 are described. The measured total heat flux (H + E) for 122 20-min periods agreed closely on average with independent estimates from an energy balance method. There was evidence that the energy balance data gave small systematic overestimates of available energy during the hours before noon, compensated by slight underestimates for the remainder of the day. A comparison of measured wind speeds and friction velocities in neutral stability confirmed the validity of the aerodynamic method for estimating momentum fluxes at heights of a few roughness lengths above the canopy. In stable conditions the log-linear wind profileU = (u _*/k)(ln ((z -d)/z _o) + (z -d -z _o)/L) with = 3.4 ± 0.4 provided a good fit to the data. Spectra in unstable conditions were generally more sharply peaked than those measured by other workers over smoother terrain: differences were less marked in the case of vertical velocity in stable conditions. Temperature spectra in these stable conditions showed high energy at relatively low wavenumbers, andwT cospectra showed a cospectral gap; both of these results were associated with an intermittent sawtooth structure in the temperature fluctuations.Now at the Meteorological Office, Bracknell     

Dry deposition of particles to a pine plantation

There has been some controversy concerning the rate of deposition of particles having diameters near 1.0 m to vegetated surfaces. In this size range, the processes of Brownian diffusion and inertial impaction are not effective and deposition to smooth surfaces reaches a minimum. However, most measurements of deposition of micrometer diameter particles to vegetated surfaces indicate a greater deposition than extrapolation of the results from less rough surfaces would suggest. In this study, the aerodynamic profile method was used to estimate deposition to a pine plantation. The deposition velocities were found to be sensitive to the displacement height and the form of the profile stability correction used in the calculations. An analysis of a limited set of Bowen ratio data, collected over the same forest, suggests that the data are reasonably described by using a displacement height of 7.9 m and the stability correction proposed by Raupach (1979).The average deposition velocities, measured over a 9-month period were 0.0043, 0.0078, and 0.0092 m/s for the three diameter classes 0.5\2-1.0, 1.0\2-2.0 and 2.0\2-5.0 \gmm. These deposition velocities are lower than the corresponding aerodynamic conductance for the same periods, indicating that the deposition rate is limited by surface phenomena. Average surface conductances calculated for the three size classes of particles were 0.0060, 0.0141, and 0.0276 m/s, respectively. A multiple regression analysis showed high correlation between deposition velocity and wind speed. No other measured environmental factor or linear combination of factors was significantly correlated with deposition velocity.This paper was prepared in connection with work done under Contract No. DE-AC09-76R00001 with the U.S. Department of Energy. By acceptance of this paper, the publisher and/or recipient acknowledges the U.S. Government's right to retain a nonexclusive, royalty-free license in and to any copyright covering this paper, along with the right to produce and to authorize others to reproduce all or part of the copyrighted paper.     

Turbulent exchange above a pine forest II. Organized structures

Data from two 100-min runs on the turbulent atmospheric wind, temperature and humidity fields above a pine forest have been analysed using conditional sampling techniques. With the aid of the temperature time series, ramp events were identified and all fields were averaged in order to remove smaller scale turbulence and random low-frequency turbulence, and to map the organized structures revealed in this way. It is shown that the turbulent fluxes of momentum, heat and humidity, determined from these ramp-events, in fact constitute a large part of the total fluxes, about 90% during the actual events.On average, the duration of and the time between ramps were found to be about 35 s and 100 s, respectively. These periods were also found in the uw-, wT- and wq-cospectra, not only in the data analysed in this paper, but in the major part of all day-time data from this forest site (about 80 runs of 60 or 100 min). This indicates that the ramp events described arc a rather common phenomenon. The organized structures also have remarkable resemblance to near-wall structures observed in the laboratory.     

Monoterpene concentrations in and above a forest of scots pine

Diurnal and vertical ambient air measurements of the monoterpenes have been made in and above a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) forest of central Sweden, within the boreal northern coniferous biome. Sampling was done with Tenax TA, and analysis by GC and ion trap detection. Daytime mixing ratios were on the order of tenths of a ppbv from the forest floor to the top of the forest, and a factor of 2 or 3 lower above the forest. Mixing ratios at night were at the ppbv level, highest near the forest floor and the crown, and decreased with height above the forest. The highest total concentration observed was 8 ppbv inside the forest at 3 am (GMT). The average terpene composition was 3-carene 32%, -pinene 29%, limonene 18%, -pinene 10%, -phellandrene 7%, camphene 5%, and sabinene at less than 2%. The 3-carene/-pinene ratio varied with wind direction and speed, relative humidity, and wet/dry vegetation, but not with ozone or NO₂ concentration, solar radiation, or temperature. Variations in the observed terpene composition at the sampling site are mainly caused by the influence of other vegetation in the vicinity of the site. It would seem that wet Scots pine emits more 3-carene relative to -pinene than does dry pine.     

Profiles and simulated exchange of H2O,O3, NO2 between the atmosphere and the HartX Scots pine plantation

Summary Vertical profiles of H₂O, CO₂, O₃, NO and NO₂ were measured during the Hartheim Experiment (HartX) to develop and calibrate a multi-layer resistance model to estimate deposition and emission of the cited gaseous species. The meteorological and gas concentration data were obtained with a 30 m high telescopic mast with 7 gas inlets located at 5 m intervals and meteorological sensors at 5, 15 and 30 m above ground; a complete gas profile was obtained every 9 min 20 s. Measured profiles were influenced by several exchange processes, namely evapotranspiration, dewfall, assimilation of CO₂ in the tree crowns, soil respiration, deposition of NO₂ and O₃ to the soil and advection of NO_x from the nearby highway. Surprisingly, no decrease in O₃ concentration was observed in the crown layer during daytime, probably due to the relatively low density of foliage elements and strong turbulent mixing.The advantage of measuring in-canopy profiles is that turbulent exchange coefficients need not be estimated as a prerequisite to obtaining vertical flux estimates. In recent years, flux-gradient relationships in canopies have been subject to many criticisms. If fluxes are calculated at several heights considering only the transfers between the turbulent air and the interacting surfaces at a certain height, and those fluxes are then integrated vertically in a subsequent step, then exchange estimates (deposition or emission) can be obtained independent of turbulent exchange conditions.Typical estimated deposition velocities calculated for a 3-day period are between 4 and 10 mm/s for NO₂ and about 4–9 mm/s for O₃ (day and night values respectively). This leads to deposition rates of about 20–40 ng N/m²s for NO₂ and about 30–40 mg O₃/m² deposited daily under the conditions encountered during HartX. Sensitivity tests done with the best available and most realistic values for model parametrization have shown that sensitivity is large with respect to the soil and cuticula resistances as well as for gas-phase ozone destruction and that more research is required to describe the effectiveness of cuticula and soil in modifying sink characteristics for NO₂ and O₃.With 12 Figures     

The available energy over a Scots Pine plantation: What's up for partitioning?

Summary Errors influencing the calculation of the available energy above a forest are discussed. The main emphasis is put on the investigation of the problems affecting the measurement of net radiation. This is done by utilizing the data set of a surface energy balance experiment which was conducted in and above a Scots Pine plantation from May 11 to 22, 1992. During that Hartheimer Experiment (HartX) there were redundant measurements of net radiation using five different radiometers of three different designs. The initially fair agreement between the net radiometer readings was considerably improved by introducing different responsivities for the shortand longwave range. The mean deviations to the relative net radiation after correction vary between — 1.4 and 1.2 Wm^–2 with standard deviations between ± 5.4 and 6.6 Wm^–2. The total error referring to the available energy is estimated to be up to ± 36 Wm^–2 (± 6%) around midday decreasing to 10 Wm^–2 during nighttime.With 3 Figures     

Turbulent exchange above a pine forest,I: Fluxes and gradients

Measurements of gradients of wind, temperature and humidity and of the corresponding turbulent fluxes have been carried out over a sparse pine forest at Jädra»s in Sweden. In order to ascertain that correct gradient estimates were obtained, two independent measuring systems were employed: one system with sensors at 10 fixed levels on a 51 m tower and another with reversing sensors for temperature and humidity, covering the height interval 23 to 32 m. Turbulent fluxes were measured at three levels simultaneously. Data from three field campaigns: in June 1985, June 1987 and September 1987 have been analyzed. The momentum flux is found on the average to be virtually constant from tree top level, at 20 to 50 m. The average fluxes of sensible and latent heat are not so well behaved. The ratio of the non-dimensional gradients of wind and temperature to their corresponding values under ideal conditions (low vegetation) are both found to be small immediately above the canopy (about 0.3 for temperature and 0.4 for wind). With increasing height, the ratios increase, but the values vary substantially with wind direction. The ratios are not found to vary systematically with stability (unstable stratification only studied). The ratio of the non-dimensional humidity gradient to the corresponding non-dimensional potential temperature gradient (equivalent to k _h /k _w ) is found to be unity for (z – d)/L _v less than about –0.1 and about 1.4 for near neutral stratification, but the scatter of the data is very large.     

Swaying of trees in response to wind and thinning in a stand of Scots pine

Observations have been made of the windspeed, wind direction, and tree movement at the edge and 20 m within a stand of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) close to 11 m in height. The spectra of windspeed near canopy top, together with the output of accelerometers and video observations of tree movement at mid-crown, were compared in the same stand prior and two years after first thinning. Furthermore, the transfer of wind energy into tree movement was investigated by calculating the mechanical transfer function (H _m ² ) between the wind spectrum (S _uu) and the tree's response (S _yy), i.e. H _m ² = S_yy/S_uu. Trees were found to behave like damped harmonic oscillators. They reacted to sudden increases in windspeed, reached their greatest displacement during the first cycle, and then returned to their rest position under the influence of damping. The spectral peak frequencies in S _yy and in H _m ²coincided with the estimated natural sway frequency of trees. Response in the second mode was, however, also evident, especially within the unthinned stand. The periodogram plots showed a consistent trend of a marked decrease in the response of the tree to increase in frequency. Almost no difference in the wind energy transfer, i.e. peak frequencies and peak width, and damping of the system was found between Scot pine at 2700 and 1500 stems per hectare. However, along the stand edge tree movement was greater than within the stand indicating greater wind energy transfer and damping of the system along the stand edge than within the stand.     

Analysis of long time series of long-wave radiation fluxes above a pine forest

Summary ?The long-term variations of upward terrestrial (E) and downward atmospheric (A) long-wave radiation fluxes above a pine stand in the southern part of the upper Rhine valley plain are analysed based on monthly mean values from 27 years of monitoring. Equivalent blackbody temperatures of the canopy and the atmosphere are calculated and compared to air temperatures at nearby sites. Based on 324 monthly values each, correlations between A and E as well as A and global radiation G are analysed. Only the former are highly correlated. Monthly mean values of long-wave radiation A can be calculated from air temperature, water vapour pressure and cloud cover. The long-term yearly average of equivalent blackbody temperature of the canopy is 0.6 K lower than kinetic air temperature at nearby sites. Only small, insignificant increases of both blackbody temperatures and air temperature are found. Despite the strong forest growth, it is surprising that the ratio of canopy emission temperature to air temperature did not change significantly. Relationships between the changes of general atmospheric circulation and equivalent blackbody temperatures of the canopy point to a strong dependence on shifts of general atmospheric flow. Received February 24, 2000; revised April 18, 2002; accepted July 20, 2002     

Climate change may already threaten Scots pine stands in the Swiss Alps

Summary Large numbers of Scots pine are dying in the dry inner-alpine valleys of the European Alps; in Switzerland, locally almost half the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) population has died since 1995. As Switzerlands temperature has increased at more than twice the global average in the 20^th century and as most of this increase has occurred during the last 20 years, we investigated possible relationships between the dying Scots pine and climatic parameters. We centred our studies in the upper Rhone valley.Our results show that the strong climatic warming that has occurred in recent years may well be the indirect cause of the mortality observed in these forests. Tree mortality was highest following the dry and hot year 1998, and tree defoliation, an indicator of tree vitality, showed a strong correlation with the previous years precipitation. While precipitation showed no clear significant trend over time, the number of warm days (mean>20°C, maximum>25°C) and potential evapotranspiration have significantly increased over the last 20 years.Higher temperatures favour pine wood nematodes and bark beetles, both of which are found at the study site, and increasing drought stress reduces tree resistance against pathogens. As these forests have in part protective functions, there is a need to better understand the mortality through interdisciplinary research and also to find means to change the species composition in order to establish tree species that are better able to withstand warmer temperatures.     

Climate change impact on snow and soil temperature in boreal Scots pine stands

Scenarios indicate that the air temperature will increase in high latitude regions in coming decades, causing the snow covered period to shorten, the growing season to lengthen and soil temperatures to change during the winter, spring and early summer. To evaluate how a warmer climate is likely to alter the snow cover and soil temperature in Scots pine stands of varying ages in northern Sweden, climate scenarios from the Swedish regional climate modelling programme SWECLIM were used to drive a Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere Transfer (SVAT)-model (COUP). Using the two CO₂ emission scenarios A and B in the Hadley centres global climate model, HadleyA and HadleyB, SWECLIM predicts that the annual mean air temperature and precipitation will increase at most 4.8°C and 315 mm, respectively, within a century in the study region. The results of this analysis indicate that a warmer climate will shorten the period of persistent snow pack by 73–93 days, increase the average soil temperature by 0.9–1.5°C at 10 cm depth, advance soil warming by 15–19 days in spring and cause more soil freeze–thaw cycles by 31–38%. The results also predict that the large current variations in snow cover due to variations in tree interception and topography will be enhanced in the coming century, resulting in increased spatial variability in soil temperatures.     

Role of Solar Radiation and Water Vapour Pressure Deficit in Controlling Latent Heat Flux Density in a Scots Pine Forest

We assessed in absolute and relative terms how solar radiation and water vapour pressure deficit control the latent heat flux density in a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forest growing under boreal conditions. The absolute and relative total control can be expressed as sums of the physical and biological forms of control. Physical control is based on the direct effects of solar radiation and water vapour pressure deficit on latent heat flux density, and biological control on the effects of solar radiation and water vapour pressure deficit on latent heat flux density through surface resistance. Measurements based on the eddy covariance method were used in the assessment, which defined the scale adopted in the study. Relative physical control over latent heat flux density was mainly exercised by water vapour pressure deficit, and the role of solar radiation was only marginal. The relative biological control exercised by solar radiation over latent heat flux density was higher in the morning and afternoon, unlike the control exercised by water vapour pressure deficit, which was strongest around noon. The values for the relative total control exercised by solar radiation over latent heat flux density were in general higher than those for relative total control exercised by water vapour pressure deficit. This is inconsistent with expectations based on Omega theory, where a decoupling coefficient () indicates the relative control exercised by surface resistance over latent heat flux density. Solar radiation and water vapour pressure deficit do not necessarily act in opposite directions in the absolute or relative total control that they maintain over latent heat flux density.